How to Survive a Nuclear Attack
http://www.english.ilstu.edu/351/hypertext98/koss/how2survive/home/main3.html

Millions of Americans will die if a nuclear attack occurs, but studies show
that tens of millions will survive the initial effects of blast and heat.
Many more will survive these initial effects if they have blast and heat
resistant shelters or if they relocate to less vulnerable areas before an
attack. But all survivors may be exposed to radioactive fallout. That is
why some type of fallout shelter is important for everyone.

Much has been done to prepare for a possible nuclear attack. Public fallout
shelter space has been located for millions. Civil defense systems include
warning and communications networks, preparations to measure fallout
radiation, emergency operating centers to direct lifesaving and recovery
operations, emergency broadcasting stations, local government agencies
organized to deal with emergency operations, and large numbers of citizens
trained in emergency skills.

Every family or individual should give special attention to planning for
shelter. Depending upon your location and other variables, there are three
possible shelter options available to you.

Seek private shelter at home. 
Seek public shelter in your own community. 
Leave your community to seek shelter in a less dangerous area. 

The first step in preparing for a possible nuclear attack is to understand
the major hazards facing you if an attack occurs. When a nuclear bomb or
missile explodes, it produces intense light (flash), heat, blast, and
radiation. The strength of these effects depend upon the size and type of
the weapon, distance from the explosion, the weather conditions (sunny or
rainy, windy or still), the terrain (flat or hilly), and the height of the
explosion (high in the air or near the ground).

   People in the areas of heavy destruction will need protection from
various combinations of blast, initial radiation, heat, fire, and
radioactive fallout. They will require shelters strong enough to resist the
blast pressure; shelters built of heat- and fire-resistant materials
sufficiently dense to shield against initial radiation and radioactive
fallout. Usually shelters affording protection from blast, heat, and fire
will also provide appreciable protection from radioactive fallout, a
dangerous threat even to people in "light damage" areas. By improvising
blast and heat protection and concentrating on ways to prevent fallout
penetration, the lives of millions of people can be saved. Shelters will be
of no use to people caught in the area of the fireball; they will have no
chance for survival. Therefore people living in or near likely targets or
high risk areas may wish to relocate in safer areas and seek fallout
shelter there. This is a serious option for many to consider if a period of
international tension allows time for such relocation before a nationwide
nuclear attack. For those people outside the immediate damage areas and for
those relocating to lower-risk areas prior to an attack, effective
protective measures can be taken against the danger of radioactive fallout. 

  Fallout will be Widespread
The distribution of fallout particles after a nuclear attack will depend
upon such factors as wind currents and weather conditions. There is no way
of predicting in advance which areas of the country will be affected by
fallout or how soon the particles will fall back to Earth at a particular
location. Some communities may get a heavy accumulation of fallout, while
others, even those in the same general area, may receive little or none. No
area in the United States can be certain of avoiding fallout, and it is
probable that some fallout particles will be deposited on most of the
country.

Areas close to a nuclear explosion may receive fallout within fifteen to
thirty minutes. It may take five to ten hours or more for the particles to
drift down on a community 100 or 200 miles away. Generally the most
dangerous period for the residents of any community is the first
twenty-four hours after fallout begins to settle. The heavier particles
falling during that time will still be highly radioactive, giving off
strong rays. The lighter particles falling later will have lost much of
their radiation high in the atmosphere.

Fallout causes Radiation Sickness
The invisible gamma rays given off by fallout particles can cause radiation
sickness, an illness caused by physical and chemical changes in the cells
of the body. If a person receives a large enough dose of radiation he will
die. If he receives only a small or medium dose, his body will repair
itself, and he will get well. A dose received over a short period of time
is more damaging than the same dose received over a longer period of time.
Usually the effects of a given dose of radiation are more severe in very
young and very old persons, and those in poor health.

Protection is Possible
People can protect themselves against fallout radiation by remaining inside
a fallout shelter. In most cases the fallout radiation level outside the
shelter will decrease rapidly enough to permit people to leave the shelter
within a few days. Even in communities that receive heavy accumulations of
fallout particles, people may soon leave their shelters for a few minutes
at a time in order to perform emergency tasks. In most places it is
unlikely that full-time shelter occupancy will be required for more than a
week or two. Information from trained radiological monitors, using special
instruments to detect and measure the intensity of fallout radiation, will
be used to advise people as to when it would be safe to leave their
shelters.

 General Principles of Nuclear Explosions

In order to fully understand what happens in a nuclear disaster, it is
important to have at least a basic understanding of the scientific
principles involved. An effort has been made to present the technical
material in terms that are easy for the layman to understand. In general an
explosion results from the very rapid release of a large amount of energy
within a limited space. This is true for a conventional high explosive,
such as TNT, as well as for a nuclear explosion, although the energy in
each is produced in quite different ways. The sudden liberation of energy
causes a considerable increase in temperature and pressure so that all
materials present are converted into hot, compressed gases. Since these
gases are at very high temperatures and pressures they expand rapidly
causing a pressure wave, called a shock wave, in the surrounding
medium-air, water, or earth. Characteristic of the ideal shock wave is a
sudden increase in pressure at its front with a gradual decrease in
pressure behind it. A shock wave in air is generally referred to as a blast
wave because it resembles and is accompanied by a very strong wind. In
water or in the ground, however, the term shock is used because the effect
is like that of a sudden impact.


Nuclear weapons are similar to those of more conventional types insofar as
their destructive effect is due mainly to blast or shock. There are,
however, several basic differences between nuclear and high-explosive
weapons. First nuclear explosions can be many thousands or millions of
times more powerful than the largest conventional detonations. Second the
mass required by a nuclear explosive to produce a given amount of energy is
much less than that required by a conventional high explosive.
Consequently, in the case of a nuclear explosion, there is a much smaller
amount of material available in the weapon itself to be converted into hot,
compressed gases. Third the temperatures reached in a nuclear explosion are
much higher than in a conventional explosion, and a fairly large proportion
of the energy in a nuclear explosion is emitted in the form of light and
heat, generally referred to as thermal radiation. Such radiation is capable
of causing skin burns and starting fires at considerable distances-as far
away as twelve miles from a one-megaton explosion. Fourth the nuclear
explosion is accompanied by highly penetrating and harmful invisible rays
of the initial nuclear radiation. Finally the substances remaining after a
nuclear explosion are radioactive, emitting similar radiations over an
extended period of time. This is known as residual nuclear radiation or
residual radioactivity.

It is because of these fundamental differences between a nuclear and a
conventional explosion, including the tremendous power of the former, that
the effects of nuclear explosions require special consideration. A
knowledge and understanding of the mechanical and various radiation
phenomena associated with a nuclear explosion are of vital importance.

What is Fallout?   How does it affect you?

Nuclear radiation is the major effect unique to nuclear weapons. The other
effects differ from conventional weapons only in degree. However it is
fallout from nuclear weapons that poses special problems. When detonations
occur on or near the Earth's surface, the radioactive substances produced
are incorporated into the materials scoured from the crater. Much of this
material is carried high into the atmosphere by the rising fireball. The
subsequent fall of particles of earth and other matter is termed fallout.
The threat of fallout was demonstrated dramatically in 1954 when fallout
from a test explosion more than a hundred miles away caused injuries among
the crew of a Japanese fishing boat and among the natives on Rongelap
Atoll.

Each megaton of fission yield produces about 100 pounds of fission
products. Thus, a 5-megaton surface burst of 50 percent fission and 50
percent fusion will produce about 250 pounds of fission products. At one
minute after fission each ounce of these products is emitting gamma rays
comparable to those from 15,000 tons of radium. In addition an explosion of
any kind, occurring near the surface of the Earth, causes material to be
thrown up or drawn into the chimney of hot rising gases. A 5-megaton
surface burst carries aloft about two million tons of soil and other
surface materials in the stem and mushroom cloud of detonation. Therefore
the material that ultimately returns to Earth as fallout is almost entirely
soil. The radioactive residues incorporated into this soil are actually
trace elements in a concentration of less than one-tenth part per million.

Soil drawn into the very hot fireball is vaporized. As the rising fireball
cools material entering later is only melted. As the fireball cools further
and forms the mushroom cloud, some material reaching the cloud level is
virtually unchanged. As the fireball cools below the boiling point of the
vaporized soil material, it begins to condense into liquid droplets, which
eventually solidify into grasslike particles.

Because particles are tiny, the size of fallout particles is generally
measured in microns, which is a length equal to one millionth of a meter.
To put these sizes into perspective, consider that 1000 microns-1
millimeter- is about the thickness of a dime. A human hair 100 microns
thick can be seen with the naked eye, but a spherical particle of the same
size is difficult to see without a microscope.

In order to survive the hazards of radiation you must seek shelter. You
must protect yourself against the most dangerous form of residual
radiation- penetrating external radiation. Time, distances, and shielding
are the three best means of protection from external radiation. If you can
control the length of time exposure and the distance between yourself and
the source of radiation, and if you place some absorbing or shielding
material between yourself and the source of radiation, you can reduce the
level of radiation significantly and thereby increase your chances of
survival. 


What is your families best chance for survival?
Where to go to survive...

WHERE TO TAKE COVER.
You can take cover in any kind of building, a storm or fruit cellar, a
subway station, a tunnel, or even in a ditch or culvert alongside the road.
A highway underpass can serve as shelter as will a storm sewer, a cave or
outcropping of rock, a pile of heavy materials, a trench or other
excavation. Getting under a parked car, bus, train, or a heavy piece of
furniture will protect you to some extent. If no cover is available simply
lie down on the ground and curl up. The important thing is to avoid being
burned by the heat, thrown about by the blast, or struck by flying objects.

BEST POSITION AFTER TAKING COVER.
After taking cover lie on your side in a curled-up position and cover your
head with your arms and hands. This will give you some additional
protection.

MOVE TO A FALLOUT SHELTER LATER.
If you succeed in protecting yourself against the blast and heat waves by
instantly taking cover, you can now move to a fallout shelter. There you
will have better protection from radioactive fallout arriving later.

WHEN IS IT SAFE TO LEAVE A SHELTER?
Maintain complete isolation inside the shelter from four to six days
following the last nuclear detonation. A very brief exposure for
procurement of water on the third day is permissible, but do not exceed
thirty minutes. On the seventh day one exposure of not more than thirty
minutes is permissible. On the eighth day limit exposure to no more than
one hour. From the ninth day through the twelfth day, restrict exposure to
two to four hours per day.

From the thirteenth day on normal operation is possible, followed by the
rest in a protected shelter. In all instances make exposures as brief as
possible. Only mandatory life-maintaining needs should be considered as
valid reasons for exposure. The times given are conservative. If forced to
move after the first or second day do so, but keep the exposure time as
short as possible.

Keep all food in covered containers
Keep cooking and eating utensils clean
Keep all garbage in a closed container
Dispose of the garbage outside the shelter when it is safe to do so, and if
possible bury it. Do not let garbage or trash accumulate inside the shelter
for fire and sanitation reasons.

MANY KINDS OF FALLOUT SHELTERS.
The farther away you are from the fallout particles outside, the less
radiation you will receive. The building materials that are between you and
the fallout particles absorb many of the gamma rays and keep them from
reaching you. A fallout shelter, therefore, does not need to be a special
type of building or an underground bunker. It can be any space, provided
the walls and roof are thick or heavy enough to absorb many of the rays
given off by the fallout particles outside. A shelter can be the basement
or inner corridor of any large building, the basement of a private home, a
subway or tunnel, or even a backyard trench with some kind of shielding
material serving as a roof. In addition to protecting people from fallout
radiation, most fallout shelters will also provide limited protection
against the blast and heat effects of nuclear explosions that are not close
by. From many studies the federal government has determined that enough
food and water will be available after an attack to sustain surviving
citizens. However temporary food shortages may occur in some locations
until food can be shipped in from other areas.
 
RELOCATING: WHY SHOULD YOU RELOCATE?

If an international crisis threatens to result in a nuclear attack, people
living in high-risk areas-those areas more likely to be nuclear targets-may
be asked to relocate temporarily to safer areas where nuclear weapons are
not likely to be targeted. High-risk areas are generally metropolitan
centers of 50,000 or more population and areas near major military
installations. The safer low-risk areas are the surrounding small towns and
countryside. These will become the host centers in the event of an
emergency relocation from high-risk areas. The federal government and many
state and local governments are currently planning for the orderly
relocation of people in time of international crisis. These plans call for
moving people from high-risk to appropriate low-risk host areas for
reception and care and for developing and improvising fallout protection in
the host areas.

WHY YOU SHOULD RELOCATE?
If you are located in a high-risk area-an urban center of 50,000 or more or
near a military installation-you may be exposed to the direct blast, heat,
and radiation effects of a nuclear explosion. By relocating to a safer area
you risk exposure mainly to radioactive fallout. Providing or improvising
fallout protection in various types of buildings is much simpler and easier
than coping with the direct effects of nuclear weapons. The chances of
combating the dangers of radioactive fallout alone are much greater than
the chances of surviving the direct effects of nuclear weapons.

If you live in a high-risk area and do not relocate when asked to do so,
you may become subject to strictly enforced curfews. Movement within the
area may be severely restricted to protect property, and it is possible
that most facilities or services normally available will not be provided
during the relocation period. Most food and retail outlets will probably be
closed. Much of the available food and goods will be needed to supply
relocated people in the host reception areas. If an attack occurs the best
existing public shelters will probably be reserved for key workers, who
will remain to carry on essential industries, and for hospitalized or
institutionalized people who cannot be relocated.

WHERE TO GO
As the crisis intensifies and relocation appears imminent, go to a vacation
cabin or to friends or relatives outside the risk area, but within a
reasonable distance. Go there as soon as possible, for as relocation gets
underway, it may be difficult or impossible to get to the location of your
choice.

If you have been designated by your employer as a key worker in an
essential industry, you may be expected to go with your family to a
reserved reception area nearby. You will probably not be expected to stay
at your high risk area, but you will most likely commute daily to work from
your assigned reception area. Protection will be provided for you while in
your high-risk location, and you will be able to join your family after
work.

HOW TO GET THERE
If you have a car, truck, camper, or recreation vehicle, drive it to your
designated reception area, using the route given by your local officials.
Remember that several days should be available for relocating all those
living in the high-risk areas. Take the time you need to prepare and pack.
Relocation routes will be designated to assure that people are equally
distributed among the reception counties so that there will be adequate
food and lodging for all. If you do not use your assigned route you may
find the reception area you have chosen filled and no accommodations
available.

If you get caught in a traffic jam turn off your engine, remain in your
car, listen for official instructions, and be patient. Do not get out of
the line to find an alternate route. All routes will be crowded. Even if
traffic is stopped for an hour or more, do not leave your car for any
reason. Wherever possible police officers will be on duty to advise and
direct you. Obey all instructions by law enforcement officers. Be sure you
have adequate gasoline when you start out. Do not buy any more gas than you
will need. Gasoline will be in short supply and will be needed to provide
you with food and other essential supplies. If you run out of gas or have
other mechanical difficulties, move your car to the side of the road out of
traffic lanes to allow others to continue. Service to stalled vehicles will
be available during the evacuation period. Leave your hood up as a sign
that you are disabled, and you will be assisted as soon as possible.

If you have no private means of transportation public transportation may be
provided to move you to your reception area. If you are physically unable
to get to transportation, make arrangements to be taken to your reception
area.

WHAT TO DO WHEN YOU ARRIVE
When you reach a major community or town in your assigned reception county,
proceed immediately to your assigned reception area. At the center you will
register yourself and your family. Reception county officials will make
every effort to assign you a place to sleep. It may be in a larger building
or possibly in a private home with a family that has volunteered to help.
If you are assigned to a public building such as a school, church, or other
temporary lodging center, do everything you can to help maintain order and
sanitary living conditions. Elect a leader and form working groups to help
local officials and volunteers with such tasks as-

Cooking and feeding services ; Providing water supply ; Cleaning up trash
and garbage ; Maintaining order ; Assuring quiet during sleeping hours ;
Organizing recreation and religious activities ; Arranging medical care for
the sick and assisting the handicapped