------------------------------------------------------------- Web Site http://www.survivalprimer.com/ Survival http://www.survivalprimer.com/Index_Survival.htm Christian http://www.survivalprimer.com/index_spiritual.htm -------------------------------------------------------------- not original to above site-this article was gleaned from the web Comprehensive First Aid Guide downloaded from the web 7 Jan 2002 Bites Bites of all kinds are serious, as bacteria and diseases are released directly into the body, and can spread quickly. Below is an outline of different kinds of bites and how to handle them. Human bites- these should usually be treated as minor puncture wounds, and the area should be washed thoroughly with soap and water and then bandaged. Human bites can kill. Marine creature bites- for bites and stings from creatures like jellyfish, Portuguese- men-of-war you need to be careful. Common jellyfish stings are usually not a big problem unless you are stung many times or are either very young or very old. You handle jellyfish stings much the same way as a Portuguese -man-of-war sting, even though p-m-o-w stings are more serious. Cover the jellyfish, or broken off tentacles with sand and Very Gently remove them and brush them off with a glove or piece of clothing. Do not touch them with your bare hands. P-m-o-w tentacles are paper thin, and even if the have broken off they will cling to you and continue to sting, hence the reason their stings are considered more harmful. It is possible to become ill from their sting, so if you've been stung by one make sure to seek medical attention quickly. If you are not hypersensitive to stings such as these, then you may treat these wounds as follows Thoroughly wash the area and apply rubbing alcohol (or salt water) several times, while being careful not to touch the area with your bare hands. Coat the area in a thick layer of backing soda and water paste, which may be removed (scraped off) about 30 minutes later. Once you have removed the layer, you should reapply the rubbing alcohol or vinegar. Salt water will also work if you have neither at hand. If a stingray has stung you, then seek medical help immediately. Wash the wound in fresh or salt water thoroughly and keep the wound submerged in hot water while you get help. If a larger animal such as a shark, or other toothed creature has bitten you, refer to the animal bites section below. Animal Bites- These can be superficial, but they can also be very serious. Most bite and scratches from household pets are superficial and can be treated with a simple washing of the wound, dab of antibacterial ointment and an adhesive bandage. But sometimes, Fido and Fluffy get a bit to frisky and really take a good bite out of you. When this happens, and when you are bitten by an animal that is not a pet of yours, you need to follow a different procedure. Wash the wound well with soap and water unless there is heavy bleeding. Then consult your doctor to determine if stitches are needed. If the wound appears serious do not attempt to clean it yourself. If the wound is large, or deep you should see your doctor as soon as possible, as the wounds must be cleaned and bandaged properly to prevent the spread of bacteria and lower the risk of infection. If the wound is large and deep, stitches will be needed. In some cases, a tetanus shot and antibiotics will be necessary. If swelling, bruising, extreme pain, increasing redness (sometime seen as streaks), tenderness, warmth around the bite area, or drainage occurs then consult your doctor immediately. Also any flu-like symptoms, such as fever, exhaustion, and swollen glands that occur soon after the bite or scratch should be reported to your doctor as soon as they appear. This is crucial as it could be signs of infection or a disease. If someone else's pet bit you, you must notify the owner and determine when the animals last rabies shot was. Vicious animals that were allowed to roam free should be reported to the local health departments. Blisters: There are two main kinds of blisters, friction and burn, and both are treated the same way. Cover the reddened area with a blister bandage at the first sign of discomfort. If the blister breaks, let it drain wash it with either an antibacterial soap or hydrogen peroxide and then pat it dry. Apply antibiotic ointment and cover again with a blister bandage. Breathing problems Asthma An asthma attack is when something (such as dust, pollen, cigarette smoke) triggers a switch in the person that causes their air passages to constrict, tighten, and spasm causing the person to cough, wheeze and have difficulty breathing. They can also be caused by anxiety and tension. Most people who suffer attack on a rather regular basis will carry their medication with them. If someone you are with is having an attack: Help them assume an upright position, this will make breathing easier than lying down. You may want to encourage the person to sit with their legs crossed and their elbows on their knees as this is a relaxing position and may ease breathing. Talk to the person calmly and try to get them to relax. Make sure they are in an area where there is a good supply of clean air (as opposed to a dusty room) As soon as the person is sitting down, have them take their medication. If they cannot then you will have to assist them. Shake the puffer and give them one puff of reliever (with or without a spacer), they should then hold that breath for 4 seconds then breathe in and out normally 4 times. Repeat this step four times. Wait 4 or so minutes. If there is no improvement repeat the previous step again. If there is still no improvement call an ambulance and continue repeating the process until help arrives. Hyperventilation Hyperventilation is rapid short breathing, and the symptoms usually last 15 minutes to half an hour, although to the person experiencing them it will seem much longer. It may be frightening but hyperventilation is usually harmless and can be triggered by things such as: Anxiety (most commonly) Extensive physical injuries Severe stomach pains Heart or lung disease If you are hyperventilating: Loosely cover your nose and mouth with a small paper bag. Slowly breathe into the bag and re-breathe the air in the bag about 10 times. Put the bag down and breathe normally for a few minutes before picking up the bag and repeating the previous step again. Repeat these steps until the symptoms lessen or go away. Try to focus on your breathing and remain clam. Try to take one breath every 5 seconds. If someone you are with is hyperventilating: Stay calm and speak to the person clearly and slowly, if possible make eye contact. Don't crowd the person, give them space and make calming gestures and try to avoid making a scene. If they are not already sitting, have the person sit down. Encourage them to breathe normally, and walk them through the breathing cycle "breathe...slowly...hold release slowly...rest breathe " and do the cycle with them. You'll want to pause for 1-2 seconds while holding the breath, and before inhaling again. If they are doing it right, calmly encourage them to keep going while continuing to breathe evenly and slowly. Panic Attacks Panic attacks are brought on by social situation and activities that are perceived as a threat to the person experiencing them. They can happen to anyone, and are usually not a serious threat. They can however occur rapidly and repeatedly, and even after the attack the person may be highly anxious for many hours afterwards. Symptoms (not all will be present at once): Shortness of breath with rapid breathing, or hyperventilation Palpitations or accelerated heart rate (when you can 'feel your heart pounding') Trembling or shaking Choking Chills, or flushing Sweating Nausea Numbness, or pins and needles in the arms and legs Chest pain or discomfort in the chest region (if pains persist after attack see a doctor, it may be signs of a heart attack) Fear of dying Fear of going crazy or doing something crazy Treatment: You treat a panic attack the same way you would treat someone who is hyperventilating. Stay calm and speak to the person clearly and slowly, if possible make eye contact. Don't crowd the person, give them space and make calming gestures and try to avoid making a scene. If they are not already sitting, have the person sit down. Encourage them to breathe normally, and walk them through the breathing cycle "breathe...slowly...hold release slowly...rest breathe " and do the cycle with them. You'll want to pause for 1-2 seconds while holding the breath, and before inhaling again. If they are doing it right, calmly encourage them to keep going while continuing to breathe evenly and slowly. Broken Bones A broken bone is never a laughing matter and if you, or someone you're with, breaks a bone it's important to know what to do. Although you should always get medical help rather than trying to fix the problem yourself, sometimes help isn't available and you've got no choice but to try to help the person yourself. First off there are several different kinds of breaks. And before you begin any treatment, it's important to know what type you're dealing with. A Greenstick Fracture is when the bone only cracks, and does not fully break. Because these do not break the skin, they should be treated as a Single Fracture. These fractures can be determined by using x-rays. A Bending Fracture occurs in children only. In this case the bone bends but does not actually break. A Single Fracture is when the bone breaks in one place, and does not pierce the skin. A Compound Fracture is when the bone has broken into two pieces A Comminuted Fracture is when the bone is broken in more than two places or crushed. An Open or Compound Fracture is when the bone has actually punctured the skin and is visible. These breaks are very severe and have a high risk on infection. DO NOT try to set these breaks yourself, instead get professional medical help immediately. Once you've determined what type of break you have there are a few things you should know about breaks in general. While your bones are strong, they can only take so much pressure and bend so much at one time before they crack or break. Younger people tend not to break bones as easily because their bones are more pliable, but bones the break at the ends should be looked at carefully because growth plates can be damaged. Older people are the opposite. A simple fall may result in a broken bone, which will take a much longer time to heal. When a bone breaks, most people feel a sharp pain similar to that of a bad headache. The smaller the fracture the less pain you're likely to feel, sometimes this makes it hard to tell if a bone is in fact broken. No matter what size it is, a break is always a big shock to your body. Some people pass out because the brain gets sent too many signals at once, others will feel pain or other sensations in parts of your body that are nowhere near the fracture. Other signs are dizziness, sweating, thirst, pale or ashen skin, chills, and numbness or bruising around the fracture site. It is also important to try and get treatment for breaks as soon as you can because breaks that are not properly cared for can limit movement ability and cause deformities once they have healed. Now here's what to do if someone has broken a bone. First and foremost, Stay Calm! Your staying calm will help to keep the person suffering the break stay calm and comfortable. Next, call 911 or get to an ER. If you are out of reach (say you're camping in some remote area) and cannot get to help, or are instructed by a trained professional only then should you begin the following steps. It is very important to note the following: If you think the person may have injured their back, neck, or head DO NOT move them unless it is Absolutely Necessary! Try not to move the broken limb, as it could cause more damage and pain. If you cannot reach help, or have been instructed to administer aid, here are the following steps for helping the person in need: Make the person as comfortable as possible before immobilizing the injured area. To keep the area from moving you'll have to make a splint. This works with leg and arm breaks where the arm is not bent. This can be done using a variety of materials such as boards, rolled newspapers, sticks, an umbrella, rolled blankets etc. Place the item around the injury and gently secure it with rope, strips of cloth, a tie; whatever you have available. If the above materials are unavailable, and the injury involves limbs, you may tape or tie the injured leg to the uninjured one, tape an injured arm to the chest, or to the side of the body (surround the limb with padding first) depending upon whether the elbow is bent. After you have wrapped and splinted the limb, check for a pulse. If you cannot find one then it means the bonds are too tight and must be loosened. Because fractures cause swelling you should check this often to make sure the person remains comfortable. Other signs that the splint is too tight are a numbness, tingling, or bluish tint to the skin at the sight of the break. If the person has broken their arm and the arm is bent at the elbow then take a cloth and fold it into a triangle. Then gently slip the widest part under the arm and tie the two ends around the neck, forming a makeshift sling. You want the arm resting at a 90 o angle. To keep the swelling and pain down, apply an ice pack, ice wrapped in a cloth, or, if all else fails, a bag of frozen vegetables. Do not keep the ice on for much longer than 20 minutes as it can cause numbness and discomfort. Unless the person is bleeding, aspirin, ibuprofen, or another pain reliever may be used to ease the pain. Once you have received professional help for a broken bone, the healing process can begin. Some bones are placed in a sling, others in a cast and depending upon the severity of the break can be in a cast for a few weeks or several months. Sometimes with more severe fractures, where the bone is crushed or broken into several pieces a steel pin is used to help repair the bone and set it in place. When the cast comes off you may notice that the area underneath the cast looks pale, dry, and smaller (where the muscles are). Don't worry this is only temporary. It's also good to remember that even though you are out of a cast or sling your bone is still very weak and sensitive and it's a good idea to avoid sports and activities where you might re-injure yourself until your doctor tells you it's ok. When you're able to get back into the sports arena, remember, to avoid breaking another bone always play it safe! Wear any protective gear available when participating in any activity that can cause serious injury. Helmets, pads, face guards, and most importantly Seat Belts! Many states these days make wearing your seat belt a law, but don't just do it because it's the law, do it because it could save your life! If you're driving a car and want to cut down on the risk of serious injury in case of an accident, make sure all your passengers are buckled up before you start the car. Remember, it's not just a safety tip it's the law! Burns, Scalds, and Sunburns What are burns? Burns are injuries that damage and kill skin cells. These wounds often need special consideration and require a trip to the doctors. Burns can be caused from hot liquids and materials, common household chemicals, fire, and radiation from the sun and other sources. When someone has been burned there are three important factors that must be looked at, depth (first second or third degree), area (total body space covered), and location (where the burn is on the body). Depth is a measure of how deep the damage to the skin goes. We will look deeper into the three degrees of damage in the section below. The total body area is also important, the skin is a barrier to protect the body, and when it's damaged, the victim is subject to fluid loss and infections. If more then 15% of the body surface is damaged the victim can go into shock, and may require hospitalization for IV fluid resuscitation and skin care. The most important factor is location. If a burn occurs on the neck or near the nose and mouth, the persons breathing passages may be affected. Burns often swell and this could become a life-threatening problem if the airways become constricted. Another facial burn that needs special attention are the eyes. These should be looked at as soon as possible and handled very seriously as burns to the eyes may lead to clouded or lost vision. Because burned tissues shrink, burns that extend circumferentially around body structures often require the surgical removal of the dead and damages tissue, this procedure is called an escharotomy. Burns are often difficult to heal and may leave scars. Burn Prevention: Burns of all kinds can be prevented easily. Keep household chemicals out of reach of children. Make sure hazardous chemicals are well marked and caps are screwed on tight. Keep hot object safely out of reach and make sure to turn off heaters and stovetops when finished to prevent burns. Also keep socket caps over all unused electrical sockets to protect against electrical shock, and keep all electrical wires away from water. Burns First Degree: Most first degree burns are superficial and can be cared for at home without the help of a medical professional. These burns are much like typical sunburns and are cared for in a similar way. You should immerse the burn in cool water (do not use ice!) and then blot it gently and apply burn cream and then cover with a dry, clean, non-stick pad. These burns usually leave the skin red and mildly swollen. The skin sensations are intact and the burn is painful to the touch. Most average sunburns are characterized as first degree burns. *Second Degree: Second degree burns are more serious and should be seen by a medical professional. If the burn seems very severe report to an emergency room or call 911. Although second degree burns often look like first degree burns, in the sense that they are red, the damage goes deeper. With these burns, the pain is more intense and blistering may occur. The burns may also be wet, or weeping and may have a shiny surface. It is advised that these burns are not touched or covered. *Third Degree: These burns are the most serious. Third degree burns are very deep and the burn often appears white, deep red, or black because of skin death. These burns are often without sensation because nerve endings have been damaged. It is important that these burns are not touched, or covered unless absolutely necessary. Andy contact with the burned skin can cause more damage and heighten the chance of infection. * For both second and third degree burns: If face is affected sit the victim up and watch for breathing difficulties, until medical help is received. If arms and legs are effected, keep them elevated above heart level. Burn Treatment: Remove and constricting jewelry Do NOT use oils or butter on a burn Douse effected area with cool water ASAP! It can be cleansed gently with chlorhexidine solution. Do NOT use ice or ice cold water, this can cause additional damage If you have not received a tetanus booster within 5 years, get one to protect against tetanus infections Electrical Burns: If someone receives an electrical burn, they should seek professional attention immediately. These burns often result in serious muscle breakdowns, electrolyte abnormalities, and occasionally kidney failure. An important thing to note about these burns is that the damage is often internal and cannot be seen from the outside. Chemical Burns: These burns should be treated like thermal burns and doused with large amounts of water to flush out the effected area. Contaminated clothing should be removed . It is also very important that you DO NOT try to neutralize the chemical burn by adding another chemical, as this could result in a chemical reaction causing thermal burns or greater skin damage. Many chemicals can be treated to reduce skin damage, so when in doubt it's a good idea to call your local poison control center or make a trip to the local ER. Sunburns: A sunburn is the result of your skin being exposed to too much of the suns ultraviolet radiation. This threat varies greatly with the seasons and with changing atmosphere conditions. The amount of sunlight you are exposed to also depends on the geographic features of altitude and latitude, as well as clothing, lifestyle and occupation. Indoors, sunburn-producing rays are filtered out by ordinary window glass. Outdoors however the suns rays are able to pass through light clouds, 25 cm of clear water, and fog. The telltale signs of sunburns appear between 1-24 hours, and are usually (if the burn is light) redness, skin is tender or painful to touch, and swelling. If the burn is more serious it will be very painful to the touch and blisters may develop along with redness and swelling. If a large portion of the body is burned chills, fever, weakness and even shock may be experienced. Treat your burns with care. Aloe Vera is a healthy moisturizer and help soothe the pain and heal the skin. Other gentle moisturizers such as Noxzema may help cool and soothe the itching and pain. Anesthetics may be used to ease pain, unless blisters are present. If used around blisters they may make the problem worse! Also be careful as local anesthetic lotions may cause a sensitizing reaction. As the burn heals the burned skin peels off and new skin is revealed. This skin may be hypersensitive for the next few weeks and care should be taken. Healing Tips: * Drink lots of liquids * Taking a hot shower after receiving a mild burn can bring about peeling sooner * Vitamins E and C can be ingested as part of a daily diet or spread as an ointment over the burn. This will help prevent severe damage from the burn and shorten its effects. *Another simple and easy summer pain reliever is watermelon rind. Cut away the pink fruit and place the greenish white rind over the burn, it has a cooling effect and will temporarily relieve the discomfort of the burn. Prevention: The best way to deal with sunburns is to avoid them in the first place. Sunscreen is a simple way of protecting yourself that takes little time and will be invaluable to keeping your skin looking healthy. For most people and SPF of 15 is strong enough to ward away burns, but if you burn easily then remember that the higher the SPF the stronger the protection. For most sunscreens to work at their best they should be applied at least 30 minutes before going out since they take about that much time to bind to your skin. This is especially important if you'll be in the water or participating in some high-energy activity where you will perspire. Many people think sunscreen is just a summer product but in fact it is helpful all year round. During the summer exposure to the midday sun should not exceed 30 minutes, even if you tan before you burn. In the winter the greatest danger comes on foggy days when the UVB levels are almost as high as on clear days, this danger is greater at higher altitudes. Use Crackle Creations "ItSUNuff" sun exposure monitor patch to tell when you have had enough sun and should get inside before you burn. Concussions A concussion is by definition "any impact to the head". The impact to be worried about is anything that hits you in a moderate to quick motion. When this sort of impact happens the brain may collide and bounce off your skull. This causes swelling to occur and in severe cases, it causes a bruise to appear on the brain known as a contusion. Because brain tissues are so sensitive and delicate moving around in this fashion can cause them to tear, stretch, twist, and swell. When these things occur the "messaging' system of the brain is often disturbed and the person may have trouble with certain mental or physical activities. Whiplash, car accidents, blows to the head, falls, and (most common) sports injuries are all common causes for concussions. Sometimes when a person receives a concussion they will go unconscious, this is often a sign of brain damage and should be dealt with promptly. Other signs of a concussion are as follows: Blurred vision Slurred speech Delayed (or incoherent) verbal and motor responses Drowsiness Confusion Memory loss Persistent headaches Dilated pupils Uncoordinated movement Loss of balance Seizures Inability to focus Bleeding or bruising behind the ears Sudden changes in personality or mood swings Inability to perform simple tasks and calculations If you're afraid brain damage may have occurred look for these signs: Headache Unconsciousness Pale skin Unequal size of pupils Difficulty speaking Clear or reddish fluid draining from ears, nose, or mouth Paralysis of an arm or leg opposite the side of the injury to the head. Paralysis of the face on the same side as the head injury. If it seems as though the person has suffered more than just a bump on the head, and you have called for medical assistance you may perform the following steps to help the person. 1. While waiting for medical assistance lay the victim lying down in the recovery position. (Head lowered and legs elevated, loosen any tight clothing, apply cool, damp cloths to face and neck (if available) ) 2. Make sure the victim is breathing properly 3. Control any bleeding 4. If the victim becomes unconscious for any amount of time, make sure to note this information and report it when medical help arrives. 5. Even if they complain of thirst DO NOT give the victim anything to drink. Remember, although most concussions do not result in hospitalization, the American Brain Injury Association notes that traumatic brain injuries kill 56,000 Americans per year and hospitalize another 373,000 more. These are important statistics to note, because many people tend to overlook concussions that appear to be only minor. Also remember that concussions may not always cause big problems, but the may cause microscopic ones. This microscopic damage is so small that doctors, even on a brain scan, cannot see it and often goes undiscovered. Someone who has suffered several concussions could be at a higher risk of facing problems with vision, balance, memory, and concentration later in life. The damage from concussions is accumulative, which is why it's extra important to wear the proper head gear when participating in sports or activities where you might be in harms way. To avoid whiplash injuries always buckle up when you get into a car. Basic Life Support, Choking, CPR Atmospheric air that is essential for life contains approximately 21% oxygen. When you breathe in (inhale) only a quarter of the air is taken by the blood in the lungs. The air you breath out (exhale) contains approximately 16% oxygen. Enough to support life! Seconds after being deprived of oxygen, the heart is at risk of developing irregular beats or stopping. Within four to six minutes, the brain is subject to irreversible damage. Basic life support is maintenance of the ABCs (airway, breathing, and circulation) without auxiliary equipment. The primary importance is placed on establishing and maintaining an adequate open airway. Airway obstruction alone may be the emergency: a shipmate begins choking on a piece of food. Restore breathing to reverse respiratory arrest (stopped breathing) commonly caused by electric shock, drowning, head injuries, and allergic reactions. Restore circulation to keep blood circulating and carrying oxygen to the heart, lungs, brain, and body. This course is not a substitute for formal training in basic life support. Airway Obstruction Airway obstruction, also known as choking, occurs when the airway (route for passage of air into and out of the lungs) becomes blocked. The restoration of breathing takes precedence over all other measures.. The reason for this is simple: If a casualty cannot breathe, he or she cannot live. Individuals who are choking may stop breathing and become unconscious. The universally recognized distress signal (Fig. 2-1) for choking is the casualty clutching at his or her throat with one or both hands. The most common causes of airway obstruction are swallowing large pieces of improperly chewed food, drinking alcohol before or during meals, and laughing while eating. The tongue is the most common cause of obstruction in the casualty who is unconscious. A foreign body can cause a partial or complete airway obstruction. Partial Airway Obstruction If the casualty can cough forcefully, and is able to speak, there is good air exchange. Encourage him or her to continue coughing in an attempt to dislodge the object. Do not interfere with the casualty's efforts to remove the obstruction. First aid for a partial airway obstruction is limited to encouragement and observation. When good air exchange progresses to poor air exchange, demonstrated by a weak or ineffective cough, a high-pitched noise when inhaling, and a bluish discoloration (cyanosis) of the skin (around the finger nails and lips), treat as a complete airway obstruction. Complete Airway Obstruction A complete airway obstruction presents with a completely blocked airway, and an inability to speak, cough, or breathe. If the casualty is conscious, he or she may display the universal distress signal. Ask "Are YOU choking?" If the casualty is choking, do the following: 1. Shout "Help"-Ask the casualty if you can help. 2. Request medical assistance - Say "Airway is obstructed" (blocked), call (Local emergency number or medical personnel). 3. Abdominal thrusts (Heimlich Maneuver) a. Stand behind the casualty. b. Place your arms around the (Fig. 2-2) casualties waist. c. With your fist, place the thumb side against the middle of the abdomen, above the navel and below the tip (xiphoid process) of the (sternum) breastbone. d. Grasp your fist with your other hand. e. Keeping your elbows out, press your fist (Fig. 2-3) into the abdomen with a quick upward thrust. f. Repeat until the obstruction is clear or the casualty becomes unconscious. If the casualty becomes unconscious, do the following: 4. Finger sweep - Place the casualty on his or her back, open casualty's mouth and grasp the tongue and lower jaw between your thumb and fingers, lift jaw with your index finger into the mouth along inside of cheek to base of tongue. Use "hooking" motion to dislodge object for removal. 5. Open airway (Head-tilt/Chin-lift) -Place your hand on the casualty's forehead. Place the fingers of your other hand under the (Fig. 2-4) bony part of the chin. Avoid putting pressure under the chin, it may cause an obstruction of the airway. Tilt the head and lift the jaw, avoid closing the casualty's mouth. Place your ear over the casualty's mouth and nose. Look at the chest, listen and feel for breathing, 3 to 5 seconds. If not breathing, say, "Not Breathing." (jaw-thrust maneuver) - If you suspect the casualty may have an injury to the head, neck, or back, you must minimize movement of the casualty when opening the airway. Kneeling at the top of the casualty's head, place your elbows on the surface. Place your fingers behind the angle of the jaw or hook your fingers under the jaw, bring (Fig. 2-5) jaw forward. Separate the lips with your thumbs to allow breathing through the mouth. Note that the head is not tilted and the neck is not extended. 6. Give breaths - Pinch nose, open your mouth, take a deep breath, and make an air-tight seal around the casualty's mouth. Give 2 full breaths, each lasting 1 to 1 1/2 seconds. Pause between each breath. If unsuccessful, perform abdominal thrusts. 7. Perform abdominal thrusts a. Straddle the casualty's thighs. b. Place the heel of your hand against the middle of the abdomen, above the navel and below the tip of the breastbone. c. Place your other hand directly on top of the first (Fingers should point towards the casualty's head). d. Press abdomen 6 to 10 times (Fig. 2-6) with quick upward thrusts. 8. Continue steps 4 to 7 -Until successful, you are exhausted, you are relieved by another trained individual, or by medical personnel. If the casualty is found unconscious, do the following: 1. Check unresponsiveness - Tap or gently shake the casualty, shout, "Are you OK?" 2. Shout, "Help" - If there is no response from casualty. 3. Position casualty - Kneel midway between his or her hips and shoulders facing casualty. Straighten legs, and move arm closest to you above casualty's head. Place your hand on the casualty's shoulder and one on the hip. Roll casualty toward you as a unit, move your hand from the shoulder to support the back of the head and neck. Place the casualty's arm nearest you alongside his or her body. 4. Open airway (Head-tilt/Chin-lift or Jaw-thrust) - Place your hand on the casualty's forehead. Place the fingers of your other hand under the bony part of the chin. Avoid putting pressure under the chin, it may cause an obstruction of the airway. Tilt the head and lift the jaw, avoid closing casualty's mouth. Place your ear over the casualty's mouth and nose. Look at the chest, listen, and feel for breathing, 3 to 5 seconds. If not breathing, say, "Not Breathing." 5. Give breaths - Pinch nose, open your mouth, take a deep breath, and make an air-tight seal around the casualty's mouth. Give 2 full breaths, each lasting 1 to 1 1/2 seconds. Pause between each breath. If unsuccessful, reposition head, and give 2 full breaths. 6. Request medical assistance - Say "Airway is obstructed" (blocked), call local emergency number or medical personnel. 7. Perform abdominal thrusts a. Straddle the casualty's thighs. b. Place the heel of your hand against the middle of the abdomen, above the navel and below the tip of the breastbone. c. Place your other hand directly on top of the first (fingers should point towards the casualty's head). d. Press abdomen 6 to 10 times with quick upward thrusts. 8. Finger sweep - Place the casualty on his or her back, open the casualty's mouth and grasp the tongue and lower jaw between your thumb and fingers, lift jaw, insert your index finger into the mouth along the inside of cheek to base of tongue. Use "hooking" motion to dislodge object for removal. 9. Give breaths - Pinch nose, open your mouth, take a deep breath, and make an air-tight seal around the casualty's mouth. Give 2 full breaths, each lasting 1 to 1 1/2 seconds. Pause between each breath. 10. Continue steps 7 to 9 - Until successful, you are exhausted, you are relieved by another trained individual, or by medical personnel. Chest Thrusts The chest thrust is the preferred method, in place of the abdominal thrust, for individuals who are overweight or pregnant. Manual pressure to the abdominal area in these individuals can be ineffective or cause serious damage. If the casualty is overweight or pregnant, do the following: 1. Conscious - Standing or Sitting. a. Stand behind the casualty. b. Place your arms under the casualty's armpits and around the chest. c. With your fist, place the thumb side against the middle of the breastbone. d. Grasp your fist with your other hand. e. Press your fist against the chest with a sharp, backward thrust until the obstruction is clear or casualty becomes unconscious. 2. Unconscious - Lying. a. Kneel, facing the casualty's chest. b. With the middle and index fingers of the hand nearest the casualty's legs, locate the lower edge of the rib cage on the side closest to you. c. Slide your fingers up the rib cage to the notch at t d. Place your middle finger on the notch, and your index finger next to it. e. Place the heel of your hand on the breastbone next to the index finger. f. Place the heel of your hand, used to locate the notch, on top of the heel of your other hand. g. Keep your fingers off the casualty's chest. h. Position your shoulders over your hands, with elbows locked and arms straight. i. Give 6 to 10 quick and distinct downward thrusts, each should compress the chest 1 1/2 to 2 inches. j. Finger sweep. k. Open the airway and give 2 full breaths. Repeat the last three steps until the obstruction is clear, you are exhausted, you are relieved by another trained individual, or by medical personnel. Self Abdominal Thrusts If you are alone and choking, try not to panic, you can perform an abdominal thrust (Fig. 2-7) on yourself by doing the following: 1. With the fist of your hand, place the thumb side against the middle of your abdomen, above the navel and below the tip of the breastbone. Grasp your fist with your other hand and give a quick upward thrust. 2. You also can lean forward and press your abdomen over the back of a chair (with rounded edge), a railing, or a sink. If the casualty is not breathing, do the following: Rescue Breathing Rescue breathing is the process of breathing air into the lungs of a casualty who has stopped breathing (respiratory arrest), also known as artificial respiration. The common causes are air-way obstruction, drowning, electric shock, drug overdose, and chest or lung (trauma) injury. Never give rescue breathing to a person who is breathing normally. 1. Check unresponsiveness - Tap or gently shake the casualty, shout, "Are you OK?" 2. Shout, "Help" - If there is no response from casualty. 3. Position casualty - Kneel midway between his or her hips and shoulders facing the casualty. Straighten legs and move arm closest to you above casualty's head. Place your hand on the casualty's shoulder and one on the hip. Roll casualty toward you as a unit, move your hand from the shoulder to support the back of the head and neck. Place the casualty's arm nearest you alongside his/her body. 4. Open airway (Head-tilt/Chin lift or Jaw thrust) - Place your hand on the casualty's forehead. Place the fingers of your other hand under the bony part of the chin. Avoid putting pressure under the chin, it may cause an obstruction of the airway. Tilt the head and lift the jaw, avoid closing the casualty's mouth. Place your ear over the casualty's mouth and nose. Look at the chest, listen, and feel for breathing, 3 to 5 seconds. If not breathing, say, "Not breathing." 5. Give breaths - Pinch nose, open your mouth, take a deep breath, and make an air-tight seal around the casualty's mouth (Fig. 2-8). Give 2 full breaths, each lasting 1 to 1 1/2 seconds. Pause between each breath. Look for the chest to rise, listen, and feel for breathing. 6. Check pulse - While maintaining an open airway, locate the Adam's apple with your middle and index fingers. Slide your fingers down into the groove (Fig. 2-9), on the side closest to you. Feel for a carotid pulse for 5 to 10 seconds. If you feel a pulse, say, "No breathing, but there is a pulse." Quickly examine the casualty for signs of bleeding. 7. Request medical assistance - Say "No breathing, has a pulse," call (Local emergency number or medical personnel). 8. Rescue breathing (mouth-to-mouth) Maintain an open airway with head-tilt/chin-lift or jaw-thrust maneuver, pinch nose. Open your mouth, take a deep breath, and make an air-tight seal around the casualty's mouth. Give 1 breath every 5 seconds, each lasting 1 to 1 1/2 seconds. Count aloud "one one-thousand, two one-thousand, three one-thousand, four one-thousand," take a breath, and then give a breath. Look at the chest, listen, and feel for breathing. Continue for 1 minute/12 breaths. 9. Recheck pulse - While maintaining an open airway, locate and feel the carotid pulse for 5 seconds. If you feel a pulse, say, "Has pulse." Look at the chest, listen, and feel for breathing 3 to 5 seconds. If the casualty is not breathing, say, "No breathing." 10. Continue sequence - Maintain an open airway, give 1 breath every 5 seconds, recheck pulse every minute. If pulse is absent, begin CPR. If pulse is present but breathing is absent, continue rescue breathing. If the casualty begins to breathe, maintain an open airway, until medical assistance arrives. Special Situations 1. Air in the stomach (Gastric Distention) - During rescue breathing and CPR, air may enter the stomach in addition to the lungs. To avoid this, keep the casualty's head tilted back, breathe only enough to make the chest rise, and do not give breaths too fast. Do not attempt to expel stomach contents by pressing on the abdomen. 2. Mouth-to-nose breathing - Used when the casualty has mouth or jaw injuries, is bleeding from the mouth, or your mouth is too small to make an air-tight seal. Maintain head tilt with your hand on the forehead, use your other hand to seal the casualty's mouth and lift the chin. Take a deep breath and seal your mouth around the casualty's nose and slowly breathe into the casualty's nose using the procedures for mouth-to-mouth breathing. 3. Mouth-to-stoma breathing - Used when the casualty has had surgery to remove part of the windpipe. They breathe through an opening in the front of the neck, called a stoma. Cover the casualty's mouth with your hand, take a deep breath, and seal your mouth over the stoma and slowly breathe using the procedures for mouth-to-mouth breathing. Do not tilt the head back. (In some situations a person may breathe through the stoma as well as his or her nose and mouth. If the casualty's chest does not rise, you should cover his or her mouth and nose and continue breathing through the stoma). 4. Mouth-to-mask breathing - Used when rescue breathing is required in a contaminated environment, such as after a chemical or biological attack. A resuscitation tube is used to deliver uncontaminated air to the casualty. This resuscitation tube has an adapter at one end that attaches to your mask and a molded rubber mouthpiece at the other end for the mouth of the casualty. 5. Dentures - Leave dentures in place, they provide support to the mouth and cheeks during rescue breathing. If they become loose and block the airway or make it difficult to give breaths, remove them. Circulation Circulation is the movement of blood through the heart and blood vessels. The circulatory system consists of the heart, which pumps the blood, and the blood vessels, which carry the blood throughout the body. Cardiac arrest is the failure of the heart to produce a useful blood flow or the heart has completely stopped beating. The signs of cardiac arrest include unconsciousness, the absence of a pulse, and the absence of breathing. If the casualty is to survive, immediate action must be taken to restore breathing and circulation. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure for the casualty who is not breathing and whose heart has stopped beating (cardiac arrest). The procedure involves a combination of chest compressions and rescue breathing. The casualty must be lying face up on a firm surface. Do not assume that a cardiac arrest has occurred simply because the casualty appears to be unconscious. This course is not a substitute for formal training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Chest Compressions a. Kneel, facing the casualty's chest. b. With your middle and index fingers (Fig. 2-11) of the hand nearest the casualty's legs, locate the lower edge of the rib cage on the side closest to you. c. Slide your fingers up the rib cage to the notch at the end of the breastbone. d. Place your middle finger on the notch, and your index finger next to it. e. Place the heel of your other hand on the breastbone next to your index finger. f. Place the heel of the hand used to locate the notch on top of the heel of your other hand. g. Keep your fingers (Fig 2-12) off the casualty's chest. h. Position shoulders over your hands, with elbows locked and arms straight. i. Give 15 compressions, each should compress the chest 1 1/2 to 2 inches at a rate of 80 to 100 compressions per minute. Count aloud, "One and two and three," until you reach 15. After each 15 compressions, deliver 2 full breaths. Compressions should be smooth, rhythmic, and uninterrupted. j. Continue 4 complete cycles of 15 compressions and 2 breaths. Check for a carotid pulse and breathing for 5 seconds. Continue CPR - If the casualty has no pulse, give 2 full breaths and continue CPR. Check for a pulse every few minutes. If the pulse is present but breathing is absent, continue rescue breathing. If the casualty begins to breathe, maintain an open airway until medical assistance arrives. Continue CPR until successful, you are exhausted, you are relieved by another trained in CPR, by medical personnel, or the casualty is pronounced dead. Do not interrupt CPR for more than 7 seconds except for special circumstances. CPR with Entry of Second Person When a second person who is trained in administering CPR arrives at the scene, do the following: 1. The second person shall identify himself or herself as being trained in CPR and that they are willing to help. ("I know CPR. Can I help?") 2. The second person should call the local emergency number or medical personnel for assistance if it has not already been done. 3. The person doing CPR will indicate when he or she is tired; and should stop CPR after the next 2 full breaths. 4. The second person should kneel next to the casualty opposite the first person, tilt the casualty's head back, and check for a carotid pulse for 5 seconds. 5. If there is no pulse, the second rescuer should give 2 full breaths and continue CPR. 6. The first person will monitor the effectiveness of CPR by looking for the chest to rise during rescue breathing and feeling for a carotid pulse (artificial pulse) during chest compressions. CPR for Children and Infants If the casualty is an infant (0-1 year old) or child (1-8 years old), do the following: 1. Check unresponsiveness - Infant: Tap or shake shoulder only. Child: Tap or gently shake the shoulder, shout, "Are you OK?" 2. Shout, "Help" - If there is no response from infant or child. 3. Position casualty - Turn casualty on back as a unit, supporting, the head and neck. Place casualty on a firm surface. 4. Open airway (Head-tilt/Chin-lift or jaw thrust) - Place your hand on the casualty's forehead. Place the fingers of your other hand under the bony part of the chin. Avoid putting pressure under the chin, it may cause an obstruction of the airway. Tilt the head and lift the jaw, avoid closing the casualty's mouth. Infant: Do not overextend the head and neck. Place your ear over the casualty's mouth and nose. Look at the chest, listen, and feel for breathing, 3 to 5 seconds. 5. Give breaths - Open your mouth, take a breath, and make an air-tight seal around the casualty's mouth and nose. Give 2 breaths (puffs for infants), each lasting 1 to 1 1/2 seconds. Pause between each breath. Look for the chest to rise, listen, and feel for breathing. 6. Check pulse - While maintaining an open airway, locate the carotid pulse (Infants: Locate the brachial pulse (Fig. 2-13) on the inside of the upper arm, between the elbow and shoulder). Feel for a pulse for 5 to 10 seconds. Quickly examine the casualty for signs of bleeding. 7. Request medical assistance - If someone responded to your call for help, send them to call the local emergency number or medical personnel. 8. Chest compressions (infant) - a. Face infant's chest. b. Place your middle and index fingers on the breastbone at the nipple line. c. Give 5 compressions, each should compress the chest 1/2 to 1 inch at a rate of at least 100 compressions per minute. After each 5th compression, deliver 1 breath. Compressions should be smooth, rhythmic, and uninterrupted. d. Continue for 10 complete cycles of 5 compressions and 1 breath. Check for a brachial pulse for 5 seconds. 9. Chest compressions (children) - a. Face child's chest. b. With your middle and index fingers of the hand nearest the child's legs, locate the lower edge of the rib cage on the side closest to you. c. Slide your fingers up the rib cage to the notch at end of the breastbone. d. Place your middle finger on the notch, and your index finger next to it. e. While looking at the position of your index finger, lift that hand and place your heel (on breastbone at nipple line) next to where your index finger was. f. Keep your fingers off the child's chest. g. Position your shoulder over your hand, with elbow locked and your arm straight. h. Give 5 compressions, each should compress the chest 1 to 1 1/2 inches at a rate of 80 to 100 compressions per minute. After each 5th compression, deliver 1 breath. Compressions should be smooth, rhythmic, and uninterrupted. i. Continue for 10 complete cycles of 3 compressions and 1 breath. Check for a carotid pulse for 5 seconds. 10. Continue CPR - If the infant or child has no pulse, give 1 breath and continue CPR. Check for a pulse every few minutes. If the pulse is present but breathing is absent, continue rescue breathing (Infant: 20 breaths/min; Child: 15 breaths/min.) If the infant or child begins to breathe, maintain an open airway, until medical assistance arrives. Continue CPR until successful, you are exhausted, you are relieved by another trained in CPR or medical personnel, or the infant or child is pronounced dead. This course is not a substitute for formal training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). References 1. Instructors Manual for Basic Life Support, American Heart Association, ISBN 0-87493-601-2 2. NAVEDTRA 10669-C, Hospital Corpsman 3 & 2 Dental Injuries: Dental Injuries can be caused by a variety of facial traumas. Whether it be the cause of making the save in the game or taking a spill from your bike it's important to know how to take care of these injuries. Dental injuries involve not only the teeth, but the jaws, muscles, and gums around them. Most hospitals have oral surgeons who can handle emergency tooth removals and jaw fractions. If the injury has added head and neck trauma, go to the emergency room. Injuries like broken teeth or those knocked out of the mouth can be dealt with a dental office. Dental Injury Classification: Tooth Fractures (chipped or broken teeth): These fractures can range from minor to severe. Minor injuries involve chipping only the outer tooth layers while severe injuries involve vertical, diagonal, and horizontal fractures of the tooth root. The tooth is made up of three layers, the enamel, dentin, and the pulp. The enamel and dentin are the two outer protective layers of the tooth. The enamel is the white hard surface, and below that is the yellow layer of dentin. The innermost living part of the tooth is called the pulp. Because only 1/3 of the tooth is visible (known as the crown) in the mouth x-rays are necessary to determine the extent of the tooth fractures. Chipped Teeth: These injuries are minor and involve only the enamel layer of the tooth. In these instances, the tooth is not out of place and the gums are not bleeding. The tooth may not be sensitive to temperature or food, but rough edges on the tooth may irritate the tongue and cheek. The pulp is not often at risk here and treatment is not urgent. On the way to the dentist, sugarless gum or orthopedic wax may be placed over the tooth to ease any discomfort. At the dental office, the treatment is usually a filling or having a "cap" put over the tooth to protect the pulp and restore normal tooth contour. Fracture of Enamel and Dentin: This fracture is deeper and like a chipped tooth, the gums are not bleeding and tooth is still in place. However, these fractured teeth may be sensitive to food and cold temperatures. Prolonged exposure of this fracture could lead to bacteria attacking the dentin and eventually result in pulp death. Death of these tissues can lead to infection and abscess. Because of this, these injuries should be treated within days of the injury. An anesthetizing cream will be placed over the dentin, followed by a dental filling and cap will be placed over the tooth. A follow up x-ray will be required 3-6 months later to ensure that the pulp has not died. If the fracture was deep enough to do actual damage to the pulp then either the dying tooth will have to be removed or a root canal will have to be performed. The root canal is designed to save the tooth from a) serious infection and b) having to be removed. The root canal removes all the dying pulp tissue and replaces it with inert material. Serious Tooth Fracture: A serious fracture is one that exposes both the dentin and the pulp. And should be treated immediately. This tooth may be loose or out of place and the gums may bleed. To prevent the tooth from falling out the dentist may have to splint it by bonding it to the adjacent teeth while the bone and gums around it heal. Because the pulp is exposed in this injury, there is a high risk of pulp death; therefore, a root canal is often performed on the first visit for the injury. However is the dentist decides to splint the tooth then the tooth will need to be reevaluated in 2-4 weeks to see if a root canal is needed. After the procedure, a filling or crown is added and the splint is removed. The most severe tooth injuries are the ones that fall vertically, horizontally, and diagonally on the tooth roots. In many cases, this leaves the tooth very loose and extraction is needed. The hole is then filled with a removable plate that contains a false tooth. On rare occasions, teeth with horizontal fractures near the tip of the roots don't need to be extracted. However, the tooth is closely observed and x-rayed periodically to watch for signs of infection and pulp death, in which a case a root canal would be needed. Teeth Knocked Out: As many parents know, the upper two front teeth are the two most likely to be knocked out. Those who play sports are at a great risk of this, as are children who have protruding front teeth that have not yet been put into correct alignment. In most cases, if a child's baby teeth are knocked out nothing is done because the teeth will be replaced with permanent teeth in time. Knocked out permanent teeth are different stories. These teeth should be retrieved and kept moist and clean (rinse in clean water or milk) and put back in their sockets as soon as possible. Time is the most important factor here. The soon a tooth is re-implanted the better chance it has to become reattached. Teeth re-implanted within an hour frequently reattach themselves. This can usually be done without the help of a dentist, but if you are at all unsure store the tooth in milk or clean water and brought to the dentist as soon as possible. Or if the victim is an adult or calm child, the tooth can be held within the cheeks inside the mouth. After the tooth has been re-implanted, the dentist will splint the tooth for 2-8 weeks. This helps stabilize the tooth while the bone heals. During this time, the patient must take special care to eat mainly soft foods and brush all the other teeth to keep the mouth as clean as impossible to ward off bacteria. In adults, the re-implanted tooth should have a root canal performed in 1-4 weeks, but in children, however, this is often unnecessary because the roots may not have fully developed. These teeth are observed for 5 years to make sure the pulp is healthy and no root canal procedure will be needed. For most re-implant patients over the counter medications like acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil) are fine for pain relief. Chlorhexidine mouth rinse may be prescribed to prevent gum disease and inflammation, since splinted teeth cannot be brushed normally. The splint also usually collects added tartar and debris. Oral antibiotics and tetanus toxoid injections are considered for patients with lacerations on the gums and mouth. Teeth Displaced: Often instead of being knocked out of the mouth, teeth are displaced. This gives the tooth the appearance of seeming longer, shorter, or "bent" to the side, front, or back. Luckily this injury isn't an emergency, but a trip to the dentist is recommended as the sooner the tooth is realigned the better (and faster) the tooth will become correctly realigned. Sometimes the trauma can cause injury to the pulp so the tooth is monitored for several months to determine if a root canal, or tooth extraction is required. Prevention: Prevention for dental injuries is fairly basic. Braces align teeth properly and facemasks and mouth guards have been shown to reduce trauma to the teeth, gums, jawbones, and joints. Mouth guards reduce the deformation of the skull when a force is directed at the chin. Mouth guards have become very important, almost eliminating the injuries that occurred to the face and mouth. While mouth guards can be purchased in stores the best ones are custom made by your dentist. The store bought mouth guards are less expensive, but are not made for the athlete and may become loose, uncomfortable, and make cause problems with speech or breathing. A well fitting mouth guard should do none of the above. Diabetic emergencies There are two different categories of emergencies when it comes to diabetes. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) and Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Below is a little information and some signs and symptoms of each. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)- the onset of this imbalance is usually rapid, and commonly happens when the diabetic is physically active and are not doing enough to maintain their sugar levels. Pale skin Weak and tired Confused (may act drunk) Aggressive or cranky Hungry Excessive sweating Rapid pulse May go to sleep and become unconscious Seizure Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar)- onset of this condition is usually slower, and may occur when the diabetic consumes a large amount of sugar when they are remotely inactive. It may also be a sign of ketoacidosis. Hot dry skin Extreme thirst, or excessive thirst Frequent need to urinate Smell of acetone (nail polish remover) on the persons breath Drowsiness Unconsciousness, which may lead into diabetic coma if untreated Blurred vision Treatment for Hypoglycemia 6. A diabetic should always try to carry something sweet with them, be it a non-diet soda, fruit, or some candy in case they go 'low'. Administering this sweet drink or food item will help reverse the effects of hypoglycemia and raise the persons' blood sugar levels. Glucose tabs and gels are available in most drugstores. Only give food or drink if the person is conscious. 7. If the person loses consciousness or cannot swallow then medical assistance is needed. Call 911 immediately or take the person to the ER. 8. If the person goes into a seizure (LINK) call 911 immediately. 9. There is an injectable medication called glucagon, which is available by prescription. A family member or friend should learn how and where to administer this shot, which raises the blood sugar quickly. Treatment for Hyperglycemia 10. Do not give the person something sweet to eat or drink as it will raise their blood sugar even more. 11. Do not give the person an insulin shot. If the person is conscious and able, allow them to give themselves a shot. If they ask, you may give assistance. 12. call a 911 or bring the person to the ER if blood sugar is abnormally high, or if person is unconscious. 13. If help is delayed, give the person sugar free liquids. Fainting People most often faint when there isn't enough blood flowing to the brain. When this happens the person becomes unconscious, the unconscious spell is usually brief. Fainting is not life threatening, although if the person faints on a regular basis it may be a sign of a more serious medical disorder, and should be discussed with your doctor. If a person feels faint (weak/lightheaded/dizzy/nauseous), have them lie down with their feet elevated above the level of their heart (about 8-12 inches), or have them sit with their head placed down between their knees. Fainting may occur because of: 1. Emotional and/or physical shock 2. Dehydration 3. Pain 4. Overexertion 5. Heart diseases 6. Sudden changes in body position (most common in the elderly and pregnant) 7. Insufficient fluid and food intake. When someone faints there are many things that you need to check before beginning treatment for the fainting. Such as 1. Was the person injured when they fell? (wounds) 2. Is the person showing any signs of shock (*AN> LINK WORDS WOUND AND SHOCK) 3. Has the person had a recent head injury? 4. Have they fainted recently? 5. Are they pregnant? 6. Are they breathing correctly/normally? 7. Do they have a history of heart disease? 8. Is the person properly fed and hydrated? Treatment: 1. Lay the person on their back with their feet elevated above their heart, or 8-12 inches, if possible 2. Loosen any tight clothing and jewelry especially around their head and neck. 3. Watch their airways, are they breathing correctly? If they stop breathing begin to administer CPR <<> ú A couple adhesive bandages for any minor cuts and scrapes they pick up along the way. ú A small pocket flashlight. This kit is advised for adults. ú Store the supplies in two or three half or whole sized Zip Lock sandwich bags to keep them safe from the elements ú One bag should contain supplies for more serious injuries, like deep wounds. For these keep a small roll (a couple feet) of cling (self adhering) and tube gauze, and 4 non-stick gauze pads. ú Another bag (which can be combined with the one above if you'd like) should contain dressings and supplies for minor wounds. One extra large bandage, 5 or so plastic adhesive bandages, 2 fingertip bandages, and some knuckle and butterfly (wound closure) bandages. ú The third bag should contain medications and cleaning supplies. 4 alcohol prep pads (individually wrapped), a small hydrocortisone (anti-itch) cream tube, some antibacterial ointment, tylenol, ibuprofen, and aspirin should be brought for fever and pain relief. Bring enough for two doses, and remember that aspirin should not be given to children. You may want to bring diarrhea medicine as well, just in case. ú Other things you should bring are a throwaway brightly colored Poncho, a good high powered whistle, a Power bar or trail mix snack, and a hypothermia blanket. These blankets are large but extremely compact and will keep you warm and alive if you are lost or stuck somewhere with an injury. Now, what to do if you are lost: ú First off, Don't Panic! If you can follow these directions You Will Be Found! ú If you are with another person, or a pet, Stay together and do not become separated. Together you can keep each other calm, and warm (by huddling close for body heat) until help arrives. ú Stay in one place, and Hug A Tree. Hugging a tree will help calm you down and if you stay with that tree you can't get lost any further or fall down and get hurt. Do not climb that tree though. The people who are out looking for you are looking on the ground, not up in the trees. You also take the risk of getting hurt if you fall from the tree. Make sure the spot you pick is not a hiding place, we can't find you if you're hiding. If you can, pick a spot near a clearing or section of lower trees. But don't wander trying to find one. Do not try and find your way back, you may just get more lost. ú Keep Warm! This rule is VERY important! Keep all your clothing on, and cover up all exposed skin that you can. Hats are a wonderful way of staying warm, bring one with you when you're hiking or camping. The worst danger you face while being lost is Hypothermia. It's a scary thing, but it can easily be avoided. If you get cold, put on your poncho, or garbage bag, make sure you put a head hole in it first though, so you can breathe! Also try and stay as dry as you can. ú It's scary to be lost, and kind of embarrassing too. But, it happens to lots of people, and it's usually not your fault. Don't be afraid that your parents will be angry at you for being lost. They miss you very much and are very very worried about you. They and hundreds of other people who care about you and want to help are out looking for you, and it's your job to help them find you. This is actually pretty easy to do. Make yourself as big as you can. If you hear a helicopter or plane passing nearby lie down in a spot where you can see the open sky above you, move your arms and legs like you're making a snow angel, also, if you're wearing bright colors then it's even easier to see you so don't dress dark on days when you'll be out in the woods! Also, try not to lie on the ground for too long, as the ground is cold! Don't worry if they don't seem to see you, you'll still be found. If you can, you can also take sticks and stones lying around and make signs for any passing helicopters, such as a big S.O.S. or a X to show them where you are. If you don't have things like that near you, you could drag your foot through the dirt and make marks in the ground. You may also want to wave around your signal flag or attach it to a branch to it will catch in the wind and attract attention. Don't just start yelling for help, it takes lots of energy. Instead blow your whistle, it's loud and easier and takes less energy. If you think you hear someone coming towards you it's ok to yell out and call for help. ú About those noises The woods can be scary, no doubt about it. But, they don't have to be. Remember that even though you may be smaller than some of the animals, none of them want to hurt you, and in fact, they're all afraid of you! If you hear something and you're afraid or you don't know what it is, yell and shout and blow your whistle. If it's an animal they'll run away and if it's a searcher they'll yell back. Whatever you do, do NOT run away. You risk getting even more lost, and getting hurt. This is an especially important rule at night when things can be extra scary. ú If you're still lost when it gets dark out, then get out your flashlight. It will help calm you down and make you feel safe, while at the same time it's a flashing signal that say's "HERE I AM!". People will keep looking for you, even at night, so if you hear something, yell and shout. It is ok, to go to sleep. But make sure that you're wearing your poncho, or garbage bag, and do not lie on the cold ground. Instead pile branches, leaves, and moss together as a sort of mattress about a 8 inches off the ground. It may not be too comfortable, but it will help keep you warmer. You can also use branches and leave to make a bit of a blanket. ú Do not eat anything you aren't 100% sure of what it is. Sometimes berries that look like berries you normally eat, are not, and can make you sick. Don't eat any mushrooms, even if you think you know what they are. Water from a small stream or river should be ok to drink, if it looks clean. Don't drink from a big lake or river unless you absolutely have to. ú Congratulations, you will soon be found!! Don't panic and try not to be scared. Don't hide, and remember, no one will be angry at you, just very happy to see you! Parents! ú Try not to let your children get lost, but remember that if they do it's probably not your fault. It's easy to get lost and distracted on the trail. Teaching them to stay on the trail will help keep them from getting lost as will establishing a prominent landmark such as a hill, or the direction of the sun that will help them from getting disoriented. ú When your child has gotten lost it's important to realize and admit this. Stay calm. Call the local sheriff and rangers immediately and a search will be arranged. Teach your child to stay in one place if they're lost so that help can find them faster. Fast response is crucial as bad weather can wipe out the track your child might have left behind, and exposure and Hypothermia are a very real threat to your child. ú Be open, accurate, and honest with the rangers and sheriff. Personal information will be kept confidential, and what you tell them may bring your child home sooner. Nosebleeds Nosebleeds are a common injury amongst people young and old. The nose is a part of the face rich in blood vessels and any trauma to the face can start a nosebleed. Nosebleeds are also common in dry climates and during the winter months when people are going from the cold to the dry heat of their homes. During these months the nose membranes become cracked and dry. This drying out of the membranes is what causes nosebleeds. People who are taking medications that prevent normal blood clotting are at a higher risk of getting a nosebleed. For these people only a light trauma could spark a nosebleed. Other factors that promote nosebleeds are alcohol abuse, infection, use of blood thinning medications, hypertension, allergic and non allergic rhinitis, and less commonly from inherited bleeding problems and tumors. Stopping the common nosebleed: In most cases the common nosebleed is fairly easy to stop, and no medical help is needed. 1. Using a clean cloth, tissue or sterile gauze, pinch the nose together at the nostrils and firmly apply pressure towards the face. Hold like this for at least 8 minutes, or until the nose stops bleeding. 2. Have the person lean forward slightly or sit up sit up straight. Do not let the person lean back, or blood may flow into the windpipe. Keep the head above the heart, or in other words, don't let the person lie down. If they must lie down try to keep their head elevated at a 45 degree angle. 3. Apply crushed ice in a bag or cloth to nose and cheeks. Make sure ice is in a bag or cloth because direct application may cause frostbite to skin. How do you prevent the nose from starting up again? ú Rest with your head elevated at a 30- 45 degree angle, or keep your head higher than your heart ú Avoid medications which will thin the blood (such as asprin), but make sure to contact your doctor before stopping taking any prescribed medications. ú Do not smoke ú Try not to sneeze. If you must sneeze open your mouth to allow the air another way to escape to avoid upsetting the nose. ú Try not to strain. Heavy lifting/pulling/pushing should be avoided! ú Try to keep to a "cool diet" for 24 hours. Avoid hot liquids. ú Your doctor may recommend a lubricant for the inside of your nose if you are prone to recurrent nosebleeds. This is easily applied with a Q-tip or the tip of a finger. Make sure to coat the middle part of the nose especially, as it is the most vulnerable. ú If it does start up again attempt to clear the nose of clots by sniffing in forcefully. Nasal decongestant sprays may also be used, but if they are used for an extended period of time they may become addictive. ú And if all else fails repeat the above steps for stopping common nosebleeds. When to go to the doctor If bleeding keep occurring and you feel faint or weak from blood loss then you should report to your doctor, or local emergency room. There they may stop the bleeding with a heating instrument and blood tests may be taken to check for disorders. If bleeding still persists then the doctor may place nasal packs, which compress the blood vessels and stop the bleeding. And in rare situations surgery is needed to plug the nose and stop the bleeding. What are these nasal packs? What happens is I get them? If your doctor has placed these packs within your nose you will need to return to the hospital in 2-5 days to have them removed. Nasal packs are made of a spongy material that compress the blood vessels and are usually only used when more conservative methods fail. When you go for your removal appointment make sure you have arranged rides to and from the hospital as you will be prescribed pain medications and antibiotics as needed. It is also advised that you continue to avoid blood-thinning medications unless otherwise noted by your doctor. When these packs are placed, it isn't uncommon for the nose to drain some blood-tinged material. This can be caught by taping a folded piece of gauze under the nose like a mustache. In some cases your doctor will permit you to clean your nostrils with hydrogen peroxide soaked Q-tips. Seizures What is a Seizure? A Seizure is a miscommunication between the nerve cells and the brain. When a seizure occurs normal brain functions are impaired and sometimes brain damage can occur. There are two kinds of seizures, General (tonic-clonic or 'grand-mal') and Partial (temporal lobe). General seizures affect small areas of the brain while Partial seizures affect the whole brain. Seizures usually last only a few minutes (in between 1 and 10) and must run their course before they end. Seizures can be caused by: ú High fevers (especially in infants and young children) these are known as "fever fits" ú Epilepsy ú Brain injury, strokes ú Infection ú Poison ú Snakebites (or bites from other venomous creatures) ú Shock ú Heat stroke ú Vaccinations ú Reactions or overdoses to medication or drugs ú Diabetes ú Trauma ú Reye's syndrome Symptoms and treatment are as follows: General ú The person may yell or cry out ú Stiffen ú Difficulty breathing (look for pale or bluish skin) ú Jerking motions ú Falling ú May last 1-4 minutes Treatment ú Remain calm ú Move all sharp edged objects out of the persons way to help keep them from injuring themselves ú Monitor their breathing ú Do NOT try to restrain the person, you cannot stop the seizure ú Do not force anything into the persons mouth or give them anything to eat or drink Once the seizure has subsided ú Help the person lay down and place something soft under their head ú Turn them to one side so they don't risk choking on their saliva ú Remove tight or restricting clothing and jewelry ú The person will probably feel confused and disoriented. ú They will also be very tired, let them sleep but stay with them until they have awoken and are fully awake and alert/aware. ú Do not give them anything to eat or drink until they have fully recovered Partial ú The person may experience convulsions (violent shaking and seizing, uncontrollable jerks and twitches) ú Glassy stare ú May give no response, or an inappropriate response when questioned ú May sit, stand or walk around aimlessly ú Make lip smacking or chewing noises ú Appear to be drunk, drugged, disorderly, or even psychotic. ú Fidgety ú Crying out ú Falling over ú Losing consciousness ú Body may stiffen Treatment ú Remain calm, and call 911 (this may not always be necessary in the case of epileptics, but is always necessary if the person is diabetic) ú Move all harmful objects out of the persons way, or try to direct them away from them vocally (if they are not convulsing) ú Do NOT try to restrain the person ú Observe their behavior, in more severe cases this may become very important information ú Be very gentle with the person, and do not be too physical with them Once the seizure has subsided ú The person will be very sleepy, let them sleep ú They may have a headache ú Give them no food or drink until after they have rested and are fully alert and recovered ú The person may be confused and disoriented ú Turn them to one side so they don't risk choking on their saliva ú Remove tight or restricting clothing and jewelry Call 911 if ú If this is a first time ú If the seizure lasts more than 5 minutes ú If the person is pregnant, injured, diabetic, or has requested an ambulance ú If the person is not breathing correctly within one minute after the seizure. If needed begin CPR If the person has one seizure after another Shock Shock is what happens when the heart and blood vessels are unable to pump enough oxygen-rich blood to the vital organs of the body. Although every illness and involves shock to some degree, it can be a life threatening problem. The best way to protect people from the serious damages that shock can have on the system is to recognize the signs before the person gets into serious trouble. In most cases, only a few of the symptoms will be present, and many do not appear for some time. The most common symptoms are: 1. Pale, cold, clammy and moist skin 2. Vacant or dull eyes, dilated pupils 3. Anxiety, restlessness, and fainting 4. Weak, rapid, or absent pulse 5. Shallow, rapid, and irregular breathing 6. Nausea and vomiting 7. Excessive thirst 8. Person may seem confused or tired 9. Loss of blood pressure Classification of shock: Hypovolemic Shock: This form of shock is brought on by a decrease in the amount of blood vessels or other fluids in the body. Excessive bleeding from internal and external injuries, fluid loss due to diarrhea, burns, dehydration, and severe vomiting usually cause this kind of shock. Neurogenic Shock: In the case of neurogenic shock, the blood vessels become abnormally enlarged and the pooling of the blood disallows an adequate blood flow to be maintained. Fainting is an example of this sort of shock, as the blood temporarily pools as the person stands. When the person falls the blood rushes back to the head and the problem is solved. Psychogenic Shock: This shock is more common, and is known as a "shock like condition". It is produced by excessive fear, joy, anger, or grief. "Shell shock" is a psychological adjustment reaction to stressful wartime experiences. Treatment for shell shock is limited to emotional support and help from a medical facility. Anaphylactic Shock: This form of shock is brought on by an allergic reaction from a food, bee sting or other insect bite, and inhalants. For more information on the care and treatment click the link below. Treatment of shock: ú Call 911 (or your local emergency help provider) for help ú Lay the victim face up, on a blanket or coat if possible, and raise the feet above the head unless they are fractured. If the person is bleeding from the mouth or vomiting, tilt their head to the side to avoid fluids going into the lungs and airways. If you are unsure of injuries keep the person laying flat. ú Loosen tight clothing, braces, belts, jewelry etc to avoid constriction of the waist, neck and chest. ú Keep the victim comfortable and warm enough to be able to maintain their own body heat. If possible, remove wet clothing and place blankets beneath the victim. NEVER use artificial sources of heat. If they are bleeding severely do not apply heat to the wounded area as it will prevent the blood from clotting as easily ú Check for other injuries, such as bleeding and burns and treat the other injuries according to first aid procedures. If possible try to splint sprains or broken bones. If you are unsure of how to do this, leave them as they are to avoid further damage. ú If they claim they are thirsty moisten their lips with water but DO NOT give them anything to drink, as it may induce vomiting. ú Try to keep the victim calm, excitement and excessive handling will worsen their condition try to assure them help is on the way. Remember, if you can perform these actions before shock has completely developed you may prevent its occurrence and if it had developed you may stop it from becoming fatal. If shock is left unattended to the victim will die, it is extremely important that first aid be performed as soon as possible. Sprains and Dislocations A Sprain is an injury to the soft tissue, or ligaments, around a joint. This sometimes happens when someone moves the wrong way and "twists" something. A Dislocation is when the bone becomes separated from the joint it meets, or it pops out of it's socket. This sometimes happens when the bone and joint are overstressed. They an also be caused by contact sport, rheumatoid arthritis, inborn joint defects, and suddenly jerking that arm or hand of a small child. Dislocation is most common in the shoulders but fingers, hips, ankles, elbows, jaws, and even the spine are also prone to dislocation. Both of these injuries are commonly confused with fractures (broken bones) because they exhibit many of the same symptoms. These three injuries result in: 1. Pain 2. Swelling 3. And an inability to move and bear weight 4. A misshapen appearance 5. Any discoloration Because of this, the same first aid care can be used for all three of these injuries. ú If you suspect a dislocation do not try to put the bone back into its socket, you may only make the injury worse. ú If you suspect a dislocation in the neck or spine be very careful and do not try to move the person yourself unless absolutely necessary, as damage may have been done to the spinal cord (which may paralyze parts of the body below the injury site.) If you also suspect an injury this serious call 911 immediately. ú If the site of injury is bleeding then treat the wounds and cuts LINK accordingly, but do not try to reset/reshape the bone or joint. Also look for signs of shock LINK ú If the pulse is weak below the affected area call 911 and loosen all restrictive clothing. ú If the person is in severe pain, or the injury is to the neck, spine, hips, or thigh bone, call 911. ú If the joint or bone needs to be repositioned, do not give the person anything to eat or drink as it will put off medical treatment. ú Remove any articles of clothing or jewelry covering the affected area, or restricting blood flow to it. ú You may give over the counter pain medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen as directed by the doctor. If there is bleeding do not give aspirin because aspirin is a mild blood thinner and will delay clotting. ú Use the PRICE technique o Protect- if possible make a splint to help immobilize the affected area. Rulers and cloth, rolled up magazines and a belt, branches and shoelaces; all types of things can be used to make a splint. This will help prevent further damage to the limb. Do not try to reposition the bone/joint while making the splint. o Rest- Avoid movement of the injured area and avoid participation in activities where you may be at risk to re-injure yourself until after the wound had had plenty of time to heal. o Ice- Use ice to minimize swelling. If no ice is available, a bag of frozen veggies is a good substitute. o Compression- An elastic or fabric bandage may help decrease swelling and ease the pain. Ask a doctor before using one and make sure the bandage is not wrapped to tightly, which would hinder circulation. o Elevation- If possible raise the injured limb up above the heart. Support the elevated limb in a sling or under a pillow or folded blanket. Prevention 1. Wear protective gear and padding especially around recently injured areas 2. You should not use the injured area for at least 24-48 hours, to avoid worsening the injury. 3. Avoid sports where you may re-injure the area.