Pauls Nuclear Notebook
A collection of relevant articles, in PDF and Bookmarked
June 2003

(Actually, this first copy only Bookmarked the pages, only.  I need to learn more
about that.At any rate, this is a collection of good nuclear stuff, in one article. 
Paul)

Collecting this kind of information is sort of a hobby to me, as many of you know.
(Currently I am including some of my relatives in my emails,  who do not know.)  This
article, from the site mentioned, is as good a one that covers basic needs in case of
emergencies.   
Note that today, 12 Feb, 2002 the government is warning about possible continued
terrorist attacks, maybe even today.  You do not know where and when this information
may be useful.  I wish I had written this article myself - it tells a lot in a little
space.  You can not always do what they recommend, but this is "food for thought."  
- Paul 

*********************
Survival Ring Services, Civil Defense Now!  Food and Water
http://www.survivalring.org/cd-foodandwater.htm
 
  Civil Defense Now! - Food and Water / 72 Hour Kit 
By Richard A. Fleetwood - May 2001 

Friends, 
This page is a great start for you on creating a very important tool to help you thru
ANY desperate or disaster situation. It was compiled and placed in a report created
for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and was published as 86 Page PDF
file which you can download from Survival Ring, as well as many other places. The
manual states that any or all parts may be copied and distributed to benefit those
who would put the information to good use. I present it here in HTML format to help
EVERYONE wanting to create the best 72 hour kit they can to take care of their
families. My thanks to all the many people in the church, who helped compile and
collate this great reference. Please read carefully and act quickly just in case you
ever REALLY need to use one of these kits. 

Contained on this page is information on 72 hour kits, emergency water supplies, and
emergency heating, cooking, and lighting.

72 Hour Kits
The objective of the Family 72-Hour Emergency Preparedness Kit is to have, previously
assembled and placed in one location, all of those essential items you and your
family will need during a 72-hour time period following an emergency. When an
emergency occurs you will probably not have the luxury of going around the house
gathering up needed items, especially if you have to evacuate your home on short
notice.

Take time now to gather whatever your family needs to survive for three days(72
Hours) based upon the assumption that those items are the only possessions you will
have. Store these kits in a closet near the front door or some other easily
accessible place where they can be quickly and easily grabbed on the way out the
door.

Pack all items in plastic Zip-loc type bags to keep them dry and air tight. This will
prevent a liquid item from spilling and ruining other items in your kit and keep rain
and other forms of moisture away from the items stored.

Keep a list of the dates when certain items need to be reviewed, especially foods,
outgrown clothing and medications so that they may be properly rotated.

Emergency supplies are readily available at preparedness and military surplus stores.
Fear may well be responsible for more deaths than exposure, hunger and injury
combined. Realizing you have fears and that these are normal emotions in unfamiliar
situation, you will be aware of them and better able to cope with them as they
appear. Fears can be expected in any outdoor problem situation. Fear of the unknown
and fear of your ability to cope with the situation will be foremost, along with a
fear of being alone, darkness, suffering, or death. Fear is usually based on lack of
self-confidence and lack of adequate preparation and experience. Knowledge and
experience(practice sessions), will help to instill confidence and help to control
fear. 
Container
The container you choose for your kit must be waterproof, have some type of carrying
handle, and must be able to be carried easily by family plastic bucket, duffel bag,
trunk or footlocker, plastic garbage cans.

Water
Advised amounts of water for a kit vary. The Utah County Sheriff's office recommends
a minimum of two quarts per day for each adult. However, a person can survive quite
well on less, and the load of carrying six quarts of water with a pack is great.
Outdoor survival course veterans agree that a two-liter bottle should be adequate.
Water purification tablets or crystals need to be a part of each kit. Refer to
Emergency Water Supply for treatment methods and information on portable water
filters.

Food
You should include in your kit a three-day supply of non-perishable food. The food
items should be compact and lightweight, in sealed packages. MRE's (Meals Ready to
Eat) are a good choice because they require little or no preparation. Freeze-dried
foods are lightweight but require extra water in your kit. Canned goods are heavy
with extra refuse. Plan nutritionally balanced meals, keeping in mind that this is a
survival kit. Include vitamins or other supplements, if desired. 
Possible foods for a kit might include:
o MRE's o snack crackers o hard candy o dried fruits o instant oatmeal o powdered
milk o jerky o bouillon cubes o raisins/nuts o instant rice/potatoes o dried soups o
gum o granola bars o instant pudding o powdered drink mixes

Also include a mess kit or other compact equipment for cooking and eating. A can
opener may also be useful.

Shelter
The objective of shelter is to provide emergency housing. It is extremely important
to be physically protected from nature's weather elements. There are many types of
shelter that can be easily included in your 72-hour kit. You may want to consider
family tent, backpacker's tent, tube tent, rain poncho, garbage bags, nylon rope or
cord, duct tape, space blanket and space sleeping bag.

Bedding
o Bedding should be warm, lightweight, comfortable, waterproof and compact. o
Sleeping bag (2 ® pound hollow-fill) o Insulation. Under your sleeping bag you will
need some insulation to protect you from the cold ground. Though foam pads are
generally thought of as an item of comfort, their true importance is in insulating
you from the ground. The best types are "closed cell" foam pads about 3/8 of an inch
in thickness. They are very light weight and easily attached to the backpack for
carrying. You may also use a poncho, plastic ground cloth, newspapers, leaves, or
pine boughs, for insulation but they are not nearly as effective as the closed cell
foam pads.

o Blankets can be used to make a bed roll but generally they are not as comfortable
nor as warm as a sleeping bag. Wool blankets are the best since they retain their
warming ability even when wet. However, blankets are very heavy and bulky.

o Space blanket or bag. As explained in the previous section space blankets and space
bags (aluminum coated mylar) are very efficient at retaining body heat and are a must
for every 72-hour kit. Even when used by themselves, without the added benefit of a
sleeping bag they will keep you warm during the night. In cold winter weather they
may not be entirely comfortable but they will probably keep you warm enough to keep
you alive. Being plastic, however, they are impervious to moisture. This is good for
keeping out rain but they also retain sweat and condensation from your breath. you
may find that periodically during the night you will have to air them out in order to
sleep comfortably. They can also be used during the day to protect from rain, sun and
to retain body warmth.

Clothing
Include in your kit one change of clothing and footwear, preferable work clothing.
Anticipate severe weather conditions. If you have a growing family remember to update
clothing sizes and needs at least once a year. Try to avoid wearing cotton clothing.
Tight cotton clothing holds water next to the skin. Wet inner clothing causes
freezing. Cotton clothing "wicks" (draws water up the very small individual fibers),
thus retaining water and spreading it over the entire body, causing loss of body heat
at an ever greater rate. Wool clothing is best. Wool is a natural thermostatic
insulator that keeps you warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Wool is naturally
durable and can withstand rugged and tough wear. Wool also repels water and has the
unique property of keeping the body warm even if it does get wet. Wool dries from the
inside out and does not "wick." Include two pairs of wool socks- one pair for wearing
and one for keeping your feet warm while sleeping.

Fuel
Every family member should have fire starting materials and know how to start a fire.
Several of these items should be assembled into a kit and labeled as "fire starting
kit." Teach all family members how to use them and let them practice building fires
with all methods until they feel totally confident with their ability to do so. Even
little children aged five or six can be safely instructed in correct fire building
techniques under proper supervision. Then if an emergency arises, they will not panic
or feel overwhelmed or frightened at the prospect of building a fire for their warmth
and protection. 
Some different sources are:
o Matches. Carry at least two dozen wooden kitchen matches that have been either
dipped in wax or nail polish to make them waterproof or carry them in a waterproof
container.
o Metal match. Waterproof, fireproof, durable, and non-toxic. Will light thousands of
fires. Available at sporting goods stores. o Butane lighters, such as Bic cigarette
lighters, are excellent ways to light a fire.
o Magnesium fire starters are good for starting fires with wet or damp wood. Shave
magnesium shavings off of a magnesium block with a pocket knife and then strike a
spark from a flint starter with a pocket knife. Magnesium burns exceptionally hot and
will ignite almost any combustible material. Works even when wet and can be purchased
at most sporting goods stores.

Paul's interjected note: the shavings from a magnesium fire starter will blow about
with every wind and eddy, even those you can not see.  A good trick one author
recommended (Outdoor Survival Manual- Maers) might to be to trap the shavings between
to decaying leaves, so that the sparks from the striker can fall through the openings
in the leaves, and catch the magnesium.  You should also note that the black bar on
the magnesium fire starter is actually made of flint.  You can spark it, alone, if
you do not want to use the magnesium.  Use the back of your knife blade to create the
sparks.

o Small magnifying glass. Use to concentrate sunlight onto paper, shredded bark or
other tinder.
o Flint and steel A spark from flint and steel (such as an empty cigarette lighter or
flint and steel striking bar), when directed at dry paper (especially toilet tissue),
shredded bark, dry grass or other tinder, if persisted in patiently will work very
well to start a fire. This is the most reliable "non-match" method of starting a
fire. o Commercial fire starter kits. These come in a variety of styles and fuels.
o Steel wool. Fine steel wool (used for scrubbing pots and pans- but not Brillo pads
or other types that have soap already impregnated into them) can be used for tinder.
Hold two "D" flashlight cells together in one hand (or one 9-volt transistor radio
battery) while touching one end of a clump of steel wool to the positive end of the
battery and the other end of the steel wool to the negative end of the battery. The
current causes the steel wool fibers to glow and then produce a flame. It burns very
hot and fairly fast so have lots of other tinder to burn once the steel wool ignites.
£ Candles can be used for warmth, light, and starting fires. To start a fire simply
cut a piece of candle about ® inch in length and place it on top of the tinder. When
lit the wax will run over the tinder making it act as a wick and ignite. You can also
place small twigs and other easily burnable materials directly into the fame to build
a fire.
£ Car Battery. If you are near your car you can easily put sparks into tinder by
attaching any wires to the battery posts and scraping the ends together in the
tinder.
£ Sterno fuel and stoves make an excellent cooking fuel when backpacking or in
emergencies. Sterno can be lit with a match or by a spark from flint and steel.
Slivers of gelled sterno can be cut from the can and placed on top of tinder and lit
with flint and steel or with a match. It burns hot enough to ignite even damp tinder.
o Cotton balls and gauze from the first aid kit make excellent tinder and can be
ignited with sparks or with matches.
o Fuel tablets such as tri-oxane and gelled fuels store well and ignite quickly and
easily. Some can be fairly expensive, however. o Butane and propane stoves. These are
made especially for backpackers. The fuel is cheaper than sterno, it burns hotter and
it heats better in windy situations than other fuels. Propane, however is more
difficult to light as outside temperatures near zero. 
First Aid Kit
Update your first aid skills. Keep your first aid kit well supplied. Suggested
first-aid supplies for 72-hour kit:
o first aid book o waterproof container o assortment of band-aids o gauze pads o
butterfly bandages o cotton balls o small roll of gauze o adhesive tape o cotton
swabs (Q-Tips) o safety pins o Pepto-bismol tablets o antacid tablets (good for bee
sting) o cold pack o consecrated oil o hydrogen peroxide o alcohol (disinfectants) o
smelling salts o medicine dropper tweezers o alcohol wipes o Benadryl capsules o
aspirin (promotes healing of burns) o Tylenol (chewable for children) o collapsible
scissors o thermometer o crushable heat pack o special prescriptions or equipment o
small tube or packets antiseptic cream o ointment o small spool thread/two needles

Miscellaneous
Some other miscellaneous items that may be very helpful are: o light stick o small
flashlight o extra batteries o pocket handwarmer o compact fishing kit o compass o
pocketknife o 50 ft. nylon cord o plastic poncho o garbage bag o paper or cards o
pen, pencil o fine wire o extra plastic bags o small scriptures o favorite songs o
small game, toy, etc. o spare glasses o money (small bills and change) o field
glasses o toothbrush/toothpaste o metal mirror o comb o razor o pre-moistened wipes o
toilet paper o feminine products o sunscreen o soap o lip balm with sunscreen o
bandana (may be used for hat, washcloth, mask, sling, tourniquet) o tube soap, bar
soap, waterless soap o identification/medical permission card o special blanket or
such for little people o portable radio with extra batteries 
Family Information Record
In addition to emergency survival supplies you should also collect vital family
information. Record and keep it in at least two safe places-a fire resistant
"get-away" box that you can take with you if you have to leave the home, and a
safe-deposit box at your bank or credit union.

The following items would be useful for you to record and keep in these two
locations:
o Genealogy records o Full name and social security numbers of all family members o
Listing of vehicles, boats etc. with identification and license numbers o Listing of
all charge account card numbers and expiration dates, bank account numbers (both
checking and saving), insurance policy numbers, securities, deeds, and loan numbers
showing the company name, address and telephone numbers.

o Name, address, and telephone number for each of the following:  o employer o 
schools o  fire/paramedics  o family contacts  o utility company o  police o  doctor 
o hospital  o attorney o  civil defense o Location of important documents o 
insurance policies o  deeds o securities  o licenses o  loans o  will o  safe-deposit
box key o  vehicle titles (pink slips) o  birth/death certificates o  social security
o I.D. cards o  citizenship papers  o letter of instruction o  tax returns (last 5
years)

Infants
When assembling items for your 72-hour kit be sure to include all necessary items for
infants. It would be a good idea to include a separate back pack or other container
that holds nothing but infant supplies (which can be surprisingly voluminous). This
kit should be kept with the kits of other family members so that it will not be
forgotten in a moment of haste. As the baby begins to grow, replace clothing and
diapers with the next larger size.

Car Mini-Survival Kit
Your car is frequently your home away from home. most of us spend many hours in our
cars each month. Anything from a jammed-up freeway to a major disaster could force
you to rely on your car for short-term shelter and survival. It is a wise practice to
keep simple provision for emergencies in your car. A self-made cold-weather car kit,
as described in some preparedness stores, is also good to keep in the car.

At-Work Survival Kit
Many persons stand a 40 percent chance of being at work when an earthquake or other
emergency strikes. A mini-survival kit kept at your place of work could make the
hours until you are able to get home more comfortable and safer. This kit could be a
duplicate of the car mini-survival kit.

Emergency Water Supply
Health department and public water safety officials use many safeguards to protect
the sanitary quality of your daily drinking water. However, this protection may break
down during emergencies caused by natural disasters. During times of serious
emergency, the normal water supply to your home may be cut off or become so polluted
that it is undrinkable. A supply of stored water could be your most precious survival
item!

You and your family may then be on your own to provide a safe and adequate water
supply. Remember that typhoid fever, Dysentery, and infectious hepatitis are diseases
often associated with unsafe water. 
Don't take a chance! Generally, under serious disaster conditions, no water can be
presumed safe--all drinking and cooking water should be purified.

Required Amounts of Drinking Water Per Person
A minimum of two quarts and up to one gallon of water is needed per day, depending on
the size of the person, the amount of exertion, weather, and perspiration loss. A
minimum of seven gallons pure water per person would be needed for a two-week
survival supply. With careful rationing, this amount would be sufficient for
drinking, food preparation, brushing teeth, etc. Fourteen gallons per person will
allow for hygiene care.

Keep an emergency supply of drinking water in plastic containers. Commercially
bottled drinking water is available. It stays pure for months and has the expiration
date clearly marked on it.

There are several other sources of water if your water supply is turned off--water
drained from the hot water tank (usually contains 30 to 60 gallons of usable water),
clear water from the toilet flush-tank, if kept constantly clean ( not the bowl !),
melted ice cubes, canned fruits and vegetable juices, and liquid from other canned
goods.

1. If water is cloudy, smelly, or otherwise polluted, strain it through a paper towel
or several layers of clean cloth into a container in order to remove any sediment or
floating matter. 
2. Water that is boiled vigorously for five full minutes will usually be safe from
harmful bacterial contamination.

3. If boiling is not possible, strain the water as above and treat by adding ordinary
liquid chlorine household bleach or tincture of iodine. Since liquid chlorine bleach
loses strength over time, fresh bleach should be used as a water disinfectant. If the
bleach is a year old the amount should be doubled. Two-year-old bleach should not be
used as a water disinfectant.

4. Other chemical treatments for water purification also include halzone tablets,
iodine tablets or crystals. Mix thoroughly by stirring or shaking the water in its
container. Let it stand for 30 Minutes. A slight chlorine odor should be detectable
in the water; if not, repeat the dosage and let the water stand for and additional 15
minutes before using. Use an eye dropper to add the chlorine or the iodine to the
water. Use it only for this purpose.

How to Prepare and Store Bottles of Purified Water
Keep the drinking water safe from contamination by carefully storing in clean
non-corrosive, tightly-covered containers. Use one-gallon containers, preferably made
of heavy opaque plastic with screw-on caps. Plastic milk bottles are not recommended.
Sterilize the bottles. 
Number of drops to be added per quart of water:
Chlorine ----------------------- Clean ------ Cloudy
Common household ----------------- 2 ------------ 4
laundry bleach
Tincture of Iodine --------------- 3 ------------ 6

From medicine chest or first
aid kit (2% chlorine) (Rotate
your iodine each year to
ensure that it will work
when you need it)

Emergency Water Supply
1. Wash bottles with soapy water, then rinse thoroughly.
2. Run about three quarts tap water into one of the containers, then add 3/4 cup
bleach to the water.
3. Shake well, turning upside down a time or two so that the stopper will be
sterilized also.
4. Let the mixture stand for two to three minutes, then pour it into the next
container. You can use the same chlorinated water for several containers.
5. Fill the empty bottle with pure or purified water and seal it tightly close with
cap or stopper.
6. Label with "Drinking Water--Purified", and the date of preparation. 7. Water
purification tablets may also be used and are available in drug stores and sporting
goods stores. They are recommended for your first aid kit. Four tablets will purify
one quart of water. 8. Some stored water may develop a disagreeable appearance,
taste, or odor. These properties are not necessarily harmful. Inspect your water
supply every few months to see whether the containers have leaked or other
undesirable conditions have developed. Replace the water if it becomes contaminated.

Portable Water Purification Equipment
A high quality filter system should possess the following
characteristics: light-weight; have fewer parts (less to go wrong); a fine
pre-filter; a replaceable or clearable filter; tight, well-made pump; high volume
output; quick filtration; should screen out organisms over 0.5 microns (0.2 microns
is best).

A system with all of these features may not be inexpensive, however. The cost will
usually reflect reliability as well as technology of design. Always use a filter
properly. Use clearest water available, allowing suspended matter to settle out. Use
pre-filter if your system has one. Do not let outlet end of filter come in contact
with contaminated water. Be sure vessel you're pumping into is clean. 
Sanitize all bottles! ª Cup Clorox to 1 Quart Water





Emergency Heating, Cooking & Lighting

HEATING
Coal stores well if kept in a dark place and away from moving air. Air speeds
deterioration and breakdown, causing it to burn more rapidly. Coal may be stored in a
plastic-lined pit or in sheds, bags, boxes, or barrels and should be kept away from
circulating air, light, and moisture. Cover it to lend protection from weather and
sun. 
Wood. 
Hardwoods such as apple, cherry, and other fruit woods are slow burning and sustain
coals. Hardwoods are more difficult to burn than softer woods, thus requiring a
supply of kindling. Soft woods such as pine and cedar are light in weight and burn
very rapidly, leaving ash and few coals for cooking. If you have a fireplace or a
wood/coal burning stove, you will want to store several cords of firewood. 
Firewood is usually sold by the cord which is a neat pile that totals 128 cubic feet.
This pile is four feet wide, four feet high, and eight feet long. Some dealers sell
wood by the ton. As a general rule of thumb, a standard cord of air dried dense
hardwood weighs about two tons and provides as much heat as one ton of coal. Be
suspicious of any alleged cord delivered in a ® or 3/4 ton pickup truck. 
For best results, wood should be seasoned (dried) properly, usually at east a year. A
plastic tarp, wood planks, or other plastic or metal sheeting over the woodpile is
useful in keeping the wood dry. Other types of fuels are more practical to store and
use than wood or coal. Newspaper logs make a good and inexpensive source of fuel. You
may prepare the logs in the following manner:

o Use about eight pages of newspaper and open flat.
o Spread the stack, alternating the cut sides and folded sides. o Place a 1" wood
dowel or metal rod across one end and roll the paper around the rod very tightly.
Roll it until there are 6-8 inches left to roll, then slip another 8 pages underneath
the roll. Continue this diameter.
o With a fine wire, tie the roll on both ends. Withdraw the rod. Your newspaper log
is ready to use. Four of these logs will burn about 1 hour.

Propane is another excellent fuel for indoor use. Like kerosene, it produces carbon
dioxide as it burns and is therefore not poisonous. It does consume oxygen so be sure
to crack a window when burning propane. 
Propane stores indefinitely, having no known shelf life. Propane stoves and small
portable heaters are very economical, simple to use, and come the closest to
approximating the type of convenience most of us are accustomed to using on a daily
basis.

The storage of propane is governed by strict local laws. In this area you may store
up to 1 gallon inside a building and up to 60 gallons stored outside. If you store
more than these amounts, you will need a special permit from the fire marshal.

The primary hazard in using propane is that it is heavier than air and if a leak
occurs it may "pool" which can create an explosive atmosphere. Furthermore, basement
natural gas heating units CANNOT be legally converted for propane use. Again, the
vapors are heavier than air and form "pockets." Ignition sources such as water
heaters and electrical sources can cause an explosion.

White gas (Coleman fuel). Many families have camp stoves which burn Coleman Fuel or
white gasoline. These stoves are fairly easy to use and produce a great amount of
heat. However, they, like charcoal, produce vast amounts of carbon monoxide. NEVER
use a Coleman Fuel stove indoors. It could be a fatal mistake to your entire family. 
Never store fuels in the house or near a heater. Use a metal store cabinet which is
vented on top and bottom and can be locked. 
Kerosene (also known as Range Oil No. 1) is the cheapest of all the storage fuels and
is also very forgiving if you make a mistake. Kerosene is not as explosive as
gasoline and Coleman fuel. Kerosene stores well for long periods of time and by
introducing some fuel additives it can be made to store even longer. However, do not
store it in metal containers for extended time periods unless they are porcelain
lined because the moisture in the kerosene will rust through the container causing
the kerosene to leak out.

Most hardware stores and home improvement centers sell kerosene in five gallon
plastic containers which store for many years. A 55 gallon drum stores in the back
yard, or ten 5 gallon plastic containers will provide fuel enough to last an entire
winter if used sparingly. Caution: To burn kerosene you will need a kerosene heater.
There are many models and sizes to choose from but remember that you are not trying
to heat your entire home. The larger the heater the more fuel you will have to store.

Most families should be able to get by on a heater that produces about 9,600 BTUs of
heat, though kerosene heaters are made that will produce up to 25,000 to 30,000 BTUs.
If you have the storage space to store the fuel required by these larger heaters they
are excellent investments, but for most families the smaller heaters are more than
adequate. 

When selecting a kerosene heater be sure to get one that can double as a cooking
surface and source of light. Then when you are forced to use it be sure to plan your
meals so that they can be cooked when you are using the heater for heat rather than
wasting fuel used for cooking only. When kerosene burns it requires very little
oxygen, compared to charcoal. You must crack a window about 1/4 inch to allow enough
oxygen to enter the room to prevent asphyxiation. During combustion, kerosene is not
poisonous and is safe to use indoors. 

To prevent possible fires you should always fill it outside. The momentary incomplete
combustion during lighting and extinguishing of kerosene heaters can cause some
unpleasant odors. To prevent these odors from lingering in your home always light and
extinguish the heater out of doors. During normal operation a kerosene heater is
practically odorless.

Charcoal. 
Never use a charcoal burning device indoors. When charcoal burns it is a voracious
consumer of oxygen and will quickly deplete the oxygen supply in your little "home
within a home." Furthermore, as it burns it produces vast amounts of carbon monoxide
which is a deadly poison. If you make the mistake of trying to heat your home by
burning charcoal it could prove fatal to your entire family. Never burn charcoal
indoors.

Cooking
To conserve your cooking fuel storage needs always do your emergency cooking in the
most efficient manner possible. Don't boil more water than you need, extinguish the
fire as soon as you finished, plan your meals ahead of time to consolidate as much
cooking as possible, during the winter cook on top of your heating unit while heating
your home, and cook in a pressure cooker or other fuel efficient container as much as
possible. Keep enough fuel to provide outdoor cooking for at least 7-10 days.

It is even possible to cook without using fuel at all. For example, to cook dry beans
you can place them inside a pressure cooker with the proper amount of water and other
ingredients needed and place it on your heat source until it comes up to pressure.
Then turn off the heat, remove the pressure cooker and place inside a large box
filled with newspapers, blankets, or other insulating materials. Leave it for two and
a half hours and then open it, your meal will be done, having cooked for two and a
half hours with no heat. If you don't have a large box in which to place the pressure
cooker, simply wrap it in several blankets and place it in the corner. Store matches
in waterproof airtight tin with each piece of equipment that must be lit with a
flame.

Heaters -----------Amount-----------Burning Time
Catalytic ------- 5 quarts --------- 18-20 hours
----------------- 3 quarts --------- 12 hours
White Gas Stoves
(two burner)----- 2 quarts --------- 18-20 hours
----------------- 3 ® pint --------- 4 hours
----------------- aerosol can 

Sterno fuel, a jellied petroleum product, is an excellent source of fuel for
inclusion in your back pack as part of your 72 hour kit. Sterno is very light weight
and easily ignited with a match or a spark from flint and steel but is not explosive.
It is also safe for use indoors. A Sterno stove can be purchased at any sporting
goods store and will retail between $3 and $8, depending upon the model you choose.
They fold up into a very small, compact unit ideal for carrying in a pack. The fuel
is readily available at all sporting goods stores and many drug stores. One can of
Sterno fuel, about the diameter of a can of tuna fish and twice as high, will allow
you to cook six meals if used frugally. Chafing dishes and fondue pots can also be
used with Sterno.

Sterno is not without some problems. It will evaporate very easily, even when the lid
is securely fastened. If you use Sterno in your 72 hour kit you should check it every
six to eight months to insure that it has not evaporated beyond the point of usage.
Because of this problem it is not a good fuel for long-term storage. It is a very
expensive fuel to use compared to others fuel available, but is extremely convenient
and portable.

Coleman fuel (white gas), when used with a Coleman stove is another excellent and
convenient fuel for cooking. It is not as portable nor as lightweight as Sterno, but
produces a much greater BTU value. Like Sterno, Coleman fuel has a tendency to
evaporate even when the container is tightly sealed so it is not a good fuel for
long-term storage. Unlike Sterno, however, it is highly volatile; it will explode
under the right conditions and should therefore never be stored in the home. Because
of its highly flammable nature great care should always be exercised when lighting
stoves and lanterns that use Coleman fuel. Many serious burns have been caused by
carelessness with this product. Always store Coleman fuel in the garage or shed, out
of doors.

Charcoal is the least expensive fuel per BTU that the average family can store.
Remember that it must always be used out of doors because of the vast amounts of
poisonous carbon monoxide it produces. Charcoal will store for extended period of
time if it is stored in air tight containers. It readily absorbs moisture from the
surrounding air so do not store it in the paper bags it comes in for more than a few
months or it may be difficult to light. Transfer it to airtight metal or plastic
containers and it will keep almost forever.

Fifty or sixty dollars worth of charcoal will provide all the cooking fuel a family
will need for an entire year if used sparingly. The best time to buy briquettes
inexpensively is at the end of the summer. Broken or torn bags of briquettes are
usually sold at a big discount. You will also want to store a small amount of
charcoal lighter fluid (or kerosene). Newspapers will also provide an excellent
ignition source for charcoal when used in a funnel type of lighting device. 
To light charcoal using newspapers use two or three sheets, crumpled up, and a #10
tin can. Cut both ends out of the can. Punch holes every two inches around the lower
edge of the can with a punch-type can opener (for opening juice cans). Set the can
down so the punches holes are on the bottom. Place the crumpled newspaper in the
bottom of the can and place the charcoal briquettes on top of the newspaper. Lift the
can slightly and light the newspaper. Prop a small rock under the bottom edge of the
can to create a  good draft. The briquettes will be ready to use in about 20-30
minutes. When the coals are ready remove the chimney and place them in your cooker.
Never place burning charcoal directly on concrete or cement because the heat will
crack it. A wheelbarrow or old metal garbage can lid makes an excellent container for
this type of fire.

One of the nice things about charcoal is that you can regulate the heat you will
receive from them. Each briquette will produce about 40 degrees of heat. If you are
baking bread, for example, and need 400 degrees of heat for your oven, simply use ten
briquettes.

To conserve heat and thereby get the maximum heat value from your charcoal you must
learn to funnel the heat where you want it rather than letting it dissipate into the
air around you. One excellent way to do this is to cook inside a cardboard oven. Take
a cardboard box, about the size of an orange crate, and cover it with aluminum foil
inside and out. Be sure that the shiny side is visible so that maximum reflectivity
is achieved. Turn the box on its side so that the opening is no longer on the top but
is on the side. Place some small bricks or other noncombustible material inside upon
which you can rest a cookie sheet about two or three inches above the bottom of the
box. Place ten burning charcoal briquettes between the bricks (if you need 400
degrees), place the support for your cooking vessels, and then place your bread pans
or whatever else you are using on top of the cookie sheet. Prop a foil-covered
cardboard lid over the open side, leaving a large crack for air to get in (charcoal
needs a lot of air to burn) and bake your bread, cake, cookies, etc. just like you
would in your regular oven. Your results will amaze you.

To make your own charcoal, select twigs, limbs, and branches of fruit, nut and other
hardwood trees; black walnuts and peach or apricot pits may also be used. Cut wood
into desired size, place in a large can which has a few holes punched in it, put a
lid on the can and place the can in a hot fire. When the flames from the holes in the
can turn yellow-red, remove the can from the fire and allow it to cool. Store the
briquettes in a moisture-proof container. Burn charcoal only in a well-ventilated
area. Wood and Coal. Many wood and coal burning stoves are made with cooking surface.
These are excellent to use indoors during the winter because you may already be using
it to heat the home. In the summer, however, they are unbearably hot and are simply
not practical cooking appliances for indoor use. If you choose to build a campfire on
the ground outside be sure to use caution and follow all the rules for safety. Little
children, and even many adults, are not aware of the tremendous dangers that open
fires may pose.

Kerosene. 
Many kerosene heaters will also double as a cooking unit. In fact, it is probably a
good idea to not purchase a kerosene heater that cannot be used to cook on as well.
Follow the same precautions for cooking over kerosene as was discussed under the
section on heating your home with kerosene.

Propane. 
Many families have propane camp stoves. These are the most convenient and easy to use
of all emergency cooking appliances available. They may be used indoors or out. As
with other emergency fuel sources, cook with a pressure cooker whenever possible to
conserve fuel. 
Lighting
Most of the alternatives require a fire or flame, so use caution. More home fires are
caused by improper usage of fires used for light than for any other purpose.
Especially use extra caution with children and flame. Teach them the proper safety
procedures to follow under emergency conditions. Allow them to practice these skills
under proper adult supervision now, rather than waiting until an emergency strikes. 
Cyalume sticks are the safest form of indoor lighting available but very few people
even know what they are. Cyalume sticks can be purchased at most sporting goods
stores for about $2 per stick. They are a plastic stick about four inches in length
and a half inch in diameter. To activate them, simply bend them until the glass tube
inside them breaks, then shake to mix the chemicals inside and it will glow a bright
green light for up to eight hours. Cyalume is the only form of light that is safe to
turn on inside a home after an earthquake. One of the great dangers after a serious
earthquake is caused by ruptured natural gas lines. If you flip on a light switch or
even turn on a flashlight you run the risk of causing an explosion. Cyalume will not
ignite natural gas. Cyalume sticks are so safe that a baby can even use them for a
teether.

Flashlights are excellent for most types of emergencies except in situations where
ruptured natural gas lines may be present. Never turn a flashlight on or off if there
is any possibility of ruptured gas lines. Go outside first, turn it on or off, then
enter the building. The three main problems with relying upon flashlights is that
they give light to very small areas, the batteries run down fairly quickly during
use, and batteries do not store well for extended time periods. Alkaline batteries
store the best if stored in a cool location and in an airtight container. These
batteries should be expected to store for three to five years. Many manufacturers are
now printing a date on the package indicating the date through which the batteries
should be good. When stored under ideal conditions the shelf life will be much longer
than that indicated. Lithium batteries will store for about twice as long as alkaline
batteries (about ten years).

If you use flashlights be sure to use krypton or halogen light bulbs in them because
they last much longer and give off several times more light than regular flashlight
bulbs on the same energy consumption. Store at least two or three extra bulbs in a
place where they will not be crushed or broken.

Candles. 
Every family should have a large supply of candles. Three hundred sixty-five candles,
or one per day is not too many. The larger the better. Fifty-hour candles are
available in both solid and liquid form. White or light colored candles burn brighter
than dark candles. Tallow candles burn brighter, longer, and are fairly smoke free
when compared to wax candles. Their lighting ability can be increased by placing an
aluminum foil reflector behind them or by placing them in front of a mirror. However,
candles are extremely dangerous indoors because of the high fire danger--especially
around children. For this reason be sure to store several candle lanterns or
broad-based candle holders. Be sure to store a goodly supply of wooden matches Save
your candle ends for emergency use. Votive candles set in empty jars will burn for up
to 15 hours. Non-candles (plastic dish and paper wicks) and a bottle of salad oil
will provide hundreds of hours of candle light.

Paul's second interjected note: I find the common taper, or dinner candle to be the
best.  You get as much time burning as you do with the larger candles, for your
money, without having to deal with a lot of melted wax. Often you can buy tapers for
25 cents each, at outlet stores.  The larger, harder to manage candles cost much more
then that, when you consider lit-candle time.  Avoid scented candles, if you can. 
Several of my church friends bought large amounts of candles from a candle factory,
cheap.  The drawback is that many of them are scented, and at least one member of our
church can not be around scented candles.  Again, simple candles are best.  See if
you can find an old-fashioned taper candle holder with a thumb ring.


Trench candles can be used as fireplace fuel or as a candle for light. To make trench
candles:
1. Place a narrow strip of cloth or twisted string (for a wick) on the edge of a
stack of 6-10 newspapers.
2. Roll the papers very tightly, leaving about 3/4" of wick extending at each end.
3. Tie the roll firmly with string or wire at 2-4" intervals. 4. With a small saw,
cut about 1" above each tie and pull the cut sections into cone shapes. Pull the
center string in each piece toward the top of the cone to serve as a wick.
5. Melt paraffin in a large saucepan set inside a larger pan of hot water. Soak the
pieces of candle in the paraffin for about 2 minutes. 6. Remove the candles and place
on a newspaper to dry.

Kerosene lamps are excellent sources of light and will burn for approximately 45
hours on a quart of fuel. They burn bright and are inexpensive to operate. The main
problem with using them is failure to properly trim the wicks and using the wrong
size chimney. Wicks should be trimmed in an arch, a "V," an "A" or straight across
the top. Failure to properly trim and maintain wicks will result in smoke and poor
light.

Aladdin type lamps that use a circular wick and mantle do not need trimming and
produce much more light (and heat) than conventional kerosene lamps. These lamps,
however, produce a great amount of heat, getting up to 750 degrees F. If placed
within 36 inches of any combustible object such as wooden cabinets, walls, etc.
charring can occur. Great caution should therefore be exercised to prevent accidental
fires.

The higher the elevation the taller the chimney should be. Most chimneys that come
with kerosene lamps are made for use at sea level. At about 4500 feet above sea level
the chimney should be about 18-20 inches high. If your chimney is not as tall as it
should be you can improvise by wrapping aluminum foil around the top of it and
extending it above the top. This will enable the light to still come out of the
bottom portion and yet provide proper drawing of air for complete combustion. If the
chimney is too short it will result in smoke and poor light. Be sure to store extra
wicks, chimneys and mantles. 
Propane and Coleman lanterns.
Camp lanterns burning Coleman fuel or propane make excellent sources of light.
Caution should be used in filling and lighting Coleman lanterns because the fuel is
highly volatile and a flash type fire is easy to set off. Always fill them outside.
Propane, on the other hand, is much safer. It is not as explosive and does not burn
quite as hot. A double mantle lantern gives off as much light as two 100-watt light
bulbs. Either propane or Coleman fuel type lanterns are very reliable and should be
an integral part of your preparedness program. Be sure to store plenty of extra
mantles and matches.

Store lots of wooden matches (1,000-2,000 is not too many). Also store butane
cigarette lighters to light candles, lanterns and fireplaces. It would be a good idea
for everyone to have a personal fire building kit with at least six different ways to
start a fire.

Above all, your home and family must be protected from the ravages of fire by your
actions. Study the instructions for any appliance used for heating, cooking, or
lighting and understand their features as well as their limitations.

Don't go to sleep with any invented burning device in your home. Your family might
not wake up.

Whatever you store, store it safely and legally. In an emergency, survival may cause
you to make decisions that are questionable with regard to safety. Become educated to
the inherent hazards of your choices and make a decision based on as much verifiable
information as possible. You and your family's lives will depend on it.

Consider carefully how you will provide fuel for your family for heating, cooking,
and lighting during times of emergencies. Next to food, water, and shelter, energy is
the most important item you can store.

Fuel --------------- Amt----------- Burning Time
White gas Lanterns
Two mantle ------- 2 pints ---------10-12 hours
Single mantle ---- 2 pints ----------16-18 hours
Kerosene Lanterns -1 quart ----------45 hours
Candles ----------   X 4" ----------2 1/3 hours
------------------ 7/8 X 4" ---------5 hours


Updated May 2001 -   2001 By Richard A. Fleetwood
Copyright   Richard Fleetwood 2001. All rights reserved.  

     21 March, 2002.  Yesterday I saw a story about a Viet Nam Vet who was in charge
of security for the largest single employer at the Twin Towers, in New York.  That
company lost only about eight people, including that man.  
     What he did was think the unthinkable, plan, and train for just such a disaster
as September 11, 2001 was.  
     Please file this text only version about how the military decontaminates food
that has been exposed to Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical agents.  Don't worry about
the charts, or trying to understand everything.  Let's hope none of us ever need
this.       Paul Phillips   paulphillips@yadtel.net  


               FM 8-10-7      Health Service Support in a Nuclear, Biological,  And
Chemical Environment 
     http://155.217.58.58/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/8-10-7/Appf.htm#s3 

APPENDIX F FOOD CONTAMINATION AND DECONTAMINATION
F-1. General 
     a. Food Susceptibility. Stored, transported, and prepared food is susceptible to
NBC contamination throughout the TO. Planning for any battle or operation must
include food protection from contamination; food contamination detection; and
contaminated food disposition (decontaminate or destroy). 
     b. Countermeasures. There are three primary countermeasures to overcome or
reduce the NBC hazard to food: 
     (1) Contamination avoidance. 
     (2) NBC agent detection. 
     (3) NBC agent decontamination. 
     c. Priorities. The priorities for conducting NBC countermeasures are--
     (1) Contamination avoidance. Contamination avoidance includes using natural and
fabricated barriers to prevent, or significantly reduce the spread of contamination.
Also, using specific procedures for entry and exit between contaminated and
uncontaminated areas reduce the potential for spreading contamination. Use of these
barriers and procedures may reduce the subsequent need for detection and
decontamination. 
     (2) Detection, measurement, and identification. These activities are essential
for determining the presence, extent, and nature of NBC contamination. This
information is essential in identifying the existence of uncontaminated supplies, or
decontamination requirements.       (3) Decontamination. Decontamination removes the
contaminant and provides food that is safe for consumption. 
     d. Decontamination. Decontamination efforts require an extensive amount of
labor, time, and supplies. The use of hasty decontamination is emphasized. That is,
decontaminate just enough to sustain operations and keep fighting, rather than to
make a contamination-free environment. Normally, decontamination efforts will be
limited to the packaging and packing materials. Food decontamination will only occur
in critical situations where other food supplies are not available. Most
decontamination is performed in or very near the AO. Before beginning decontamination
procedures, divide exposed food items into groups based on protection of item at time
of exposure. These groups establish priorities based on ease of decontamination and
the ability to monitor the food. 
     (1) Group I--Canned or packaged items exposed only to a chemical agent vapor. 
     (2) Group II--Canned or packaged items that are contaminated on the outside with
a liquid chemical agent, a biological agent, or radioactive fallout. 
     (3) Group III--Unpacked or poorly packaged items that have been exposed to any
NBC of agent. 
     (4) Group IV--Food contaminated through the food chain.  
F-2. Protection of Food from Contamination 
     An adequate defensive posture for a chemical attack will also protect food
against biological contamination and radiation fallout.       a. Operational Rations.
Operational rations include, but are not limited to: T rations, meals ready-to-eat
(MREs), survival rations, B rations, and medical B rations. 
     (1) Packaging materials and storage methods normally protect these rations. The
packaging and packing of operational rations protect the contents from deterioration.
As a result, the contents are protected from moisture, to include chemical liquids,
chemical vapors, and biological agents. Operational rations delivered to an AO will
usually have increased levels of packaging and/or packing protection. Operational
rations are substantially protected while contained in the shipping cases, especially
if protected with an overlay of fiberboard, shrink wrap, or film wrap. 
     (2) Enclosed storage is used whenever possible. Refrigerated warehouses, cold
storage rooms, and even prefabricated refrigerators and trailers provide excellent
protection. Underground shelters, caves, and tunnels that can be made airtight
provide maximum NBC protection. Buildings provide protection depending on how well
they can be closed and sealed. The basement of a building is a good storage place.
However, keep in mind that chemical vapors tend to seek out low-lying areas. Storing
rations indoors will protect them from liquid droplet and fallout contamination
unless the building is damaged by an attack. Complete protection against chemical
vapors is only offered by airtight closed spaces like cold storage facilities. 
     (3) Chemical protective measures are to be integrated into daily logistical
operation to avoid the contamination of operational rations. Maximum use is made of
alarm and detection equipment, overhead shelter, shielding materials, and protective
covers. Back up stocks of operational rations should be dispersed to minimize the
risk of destruction or contamination. 
     (4) An NBC Protective Cover or similar equipment will help greatly. The NBC
Protective Cover is discarded and replaced upon becoming contaminated; it reduces
overall decontamination
requirements; and it improves the survivability of supplies and equipment. The NBC
Protective Cover provides 24-hour protection against liquid chemical contamination.
Detection paper used on the NBC Protective Cover will rapidly identify a contaminated
cover.       b. Bulk and Fresh Foods. 
     (1) Field expedient or improvised storage may be the only choice available under
high risk conditions. Expedient storage for food supplies may be a natural or
man-made depression lined to protect contents against moisture, and then covered with
earth and sod. The earth gives good protection against all forms of chemical or
biological contamination and nuclear fallout. 
     (2) Foods are only stored outdoors or in partially protected areas when
absolutely necessary. Only cases of foods packed in cans, bottles, or airtight foil
or film wraps, and foods packed in sealed boxes or multilayered wrappings can be
subjected to exposed storage. Partial protection is provided by open sheds, temporary
roofing, or tents. When subsistence must be stored in the open, give as much
protection as possible. Protection material may include NBC Protective Covers,
tarpaulins, tarpaulin sheds, or any other available covering such as plastic
sheeting. Tarpaulins and other treated or waterproof coverings do not prevent
contamination by chemical vapors, but they do reduce contamination from liquid
agents. Canvas will keep out more than 95 percent of liquid contamination for a short
period of time after the attack. The canvas must be removed soon after the attack to
prevent the agent from seeping through onto the subsistence; placement of spacers
between the covering and the food will greatly reduce this problem. Even the thinnest
material will offer some protection and is better than nothing at all. Therefore,
food supplies must be covered by whatever material is available. 


F-3. Nuclear 
     a. Contamination. 
     (1) Following a nuclear detonation food can become contaminated in three ways: 
     Direct contamination. Direct contamination results by fallout collecting on
plants, animals, and stored food (surface
contamination). Fallout has two effects. First, it produces a gamma radiation field
over the fallout area. Second, it contaminates the surface of anything on which it is
deposited. The whole-body gamma irradiation hazard to an individual far outweighs any
potential hazard from food contamination. The basic rule is: If you can safely be in
the area to salvage the food, then the food salvaged is safe to use (although
slightly contaminated). 
     Indirect contamination. This form of contamination can be spread throughout the
food chain. Humans can ingest contamination by eating plants which have absorbed
radioactive isotopes; products (milk or meat) from animals allowed to graze on
contaminated pastures; or fish from contaminated water. 
     Induced radiation. It is possible that food will be exposed to sufficient
neutron flux (an increase in the number of free neutrons) as the result of a nuclear
explosion to produce considerable induced radioactivity in food without it being
destroyed by blast and heat. This is possible with enhanced radiation weapons in the
energy range of 1 KT where the radiation kill radius exceeds the blast destruction
zone. The elements that are most prominently involved are sodium, potassium, sulfur,
copper, bromine, zinc, and especially phosphorous. Thus, in an area of induced
radiation, foods requiring the most caution are dairy products, high salt content
foods, dry beans, raisins, and ready-mixed cake and biscuit flours. The radioactivity
has a short half-life; therefore, the radiation will decay very rapidly. It should be
possible to consume foods containing induced radiation within a week or two. Cans,
particularly those with "C" enamel, may incur a high level of induced radiation (from
zinc in the enamel, not from iron in the can). Glass, because of its high salt
content, will show very high levels of activity; clear glass will turn brown.
Container radioactivity has no bearing on the food, it is safe to use. The
radioactivity is not transferred to the contents. No significant toxic by-products
are formed in the exposed canned food.  (2) Consumption of food contaminated with
radioactive fallout may cause a risk of radiation injuries from internal radiation;
that is, radiation from radioactive sources within the body. Most isotopes will pass
through the digestive tract or be excreted very quickly. However, the intestinal
tract may receive a considerable dose. Some isotopes are more hazardous because they
are absorbed from the digestive tract and enter the metabolism of man and animals. 
     Strontium-89 (Sr-89) and Strontium-90 (Sr-90) are beta emitters and have
half-lives of 51 days and 28 years respectively. Therefore, Sr-90 is the greatest
radiation hazard in the long term. These two isotopes are absorbed in the body and
used in the same way as calcium. They accumulate in bone, where bone marrow with its
blood forming cells is vulnerable. Milk and other dairy products are the primary
sources of Sr-89 and Sr-90 in the human diet. 
     Iodine-131 (I-131) is a beta and gamma emitter and has a short physical
half-life of approximately 8 days. It is efficiently absorbed and used by the body.
Iodine-131 will contaminate plants which will be eaten by grazing animals. Smaller
amounts can also be absorbed by breathing contaminated air. Cattle will excrete a
large amount of I-131 in milk. Milk and other dairy products are the primary sources
of I-131 intake. One can also get smaller amounts by eating contaminated fruits and
vegetables. Iodine-131 will be concentrated in the thyroid gland. The intake of I-131
will have its greatest impact the first few days to weeks following a nuclear
explosion.       Cesium-137 (Cs-137) is a beta emitter and has a half-live of 30
years, but is eliminated relatively quickly from the body. The biological half-live
is 70 to 140 days. Cesium-137 is found in most tissues of the body, but it will
concentrate in muscle tissue. Cesium-137 is absorbed and used the same way as
potassium. Meat and milk are the primary sources of Cs-137. Much precipitation, lack
of minerals in the soil, and extensive cultivation increase the plants' absorption of
Cs-137; thus, the contamination of plant products.       (3) Operational rations are
safe when surface decontamination is performed before breaking the package.
Operational rations stored close to ground zero may become radioactive from induced
radiation. It is more likely, however, that the food will be damaged or destroyed by
the blast and thermal effects of the nuclear explosion. 
     (4) Bulk and fresh food stored in the open without protection will be
contaminated. Decontamination is very difficult and time-consuming. Efforts should be
made to ensure proper packing to prevent food contamination from radioactive fallout.
Packing made from hard and nonporous materials, such as plastic or multilayer
cardboard with a smooth surface, should be used. In addition, storage facilities
should be enclosed to avoid the entry of fallout. Any material used as a protective
cover will give some protection against nuclear fallout. Protection against induced
radiation, blast, and thermal effects requires a hardened shelter or underground
storage. 
     (5) Food supplies require protection throughout the chain of production or
procurement. Protection of the civilian based food supply includes countermeasures
along the production chain. Meats and milk are the most vulnerable products because
of the possibility for concentration of radioactive isotopes (Strontium, Cesium and
Iodine). The primary, and possibly the only, protection of animal products is to keep
the animals in-doors and to avoid contaminated fodder. Immediate slaughter of food
animals is recommended if there is a shortage of uncontaminated fodder. Also, food
animals exposed to fallout should be considered fit for consumption and slaughtered
using routine procedures. Unharvested crops cannot be protected.       b. Inspection
and Monitoring. 
     (1) Fallout close to ground zero, especially after a surface burst, may be
visible as dust. The presence of dust is an immediate indicator of contamination.
Fallout on unprotected food produces a grittiness which is unpleasant and warns
against eating the food. The degree and means of food protection (packaging and
storage facilities) must be considered. Food in a building that remains intact should
not receive enough contamination to be dangerous when eaten. 
     (2) Veterinary units have the IM-174A/PD to conduct ground or aerial surveys for
gamma radioactive contamination levels in an area. The measurement of the external
gamma radiation in the fallout area is an indication, but not a quantitative measure,
for the degree of hazard from food contamination. These units also have the AN/PDR27
Radiac Set to detect point sources of gamma and beta radiation and to measure gamma
radiation. Food monitoring is conducted in an area with low background radiation. If
the storage area is contaminated, the food must be moved to a cleaner area for
monitoring. With the AN/PDR27, the initial food monitoring is performed with the
probe window closed and the probe passed approximately 6 inches from the surface. If
the reading is twice the background dose rate, the food is considered contaminated.
If the reading is not above the background level but contamination is still
suspected, place the probe closer to the food with the beta shield open. Monitor meat
and fish with the probe open; pass the probe approximately one-half inch from the
surface of the food. 
     (3) Monitoring food contaminated through the food-chain is more complicated;
depending on the detection instrument used, special procedures must be followed.
Gamma and beta emitting radionuclides in small volumes may be detected using radiac
sets such as the AN/PDR27; however, alpha emitting ones cannot. They are rough
instruments and may be used only for screening surface contaminated food. To evaluate
the hazards; the isotopes contributing to the radioactivity must be identified.
Surface contaminated food will contain a mixture of isotopes with some more hazardous
than others, depending upon whether they are used by the body. Milk will contain
mostly I-131, Cs-137, Sr-89, and Sr-90. Meat and fish will contain mostly Cs-137. To
verify I-131, Cs-137, Sr-89, and Sr-90 contamination, samples must be sent to
laboratories equipped to analyze the samples. 
     (4) All newly selected food supplies must be surveyed. Begin continuous
monitoring immediately following receipt of a fallout warning, or when increased
levels of radiation are detected by periodic monitoring. 
     (5) Periodic monitoring is needed to establish baseline levels of background
radiation in the environment and various food products. This monitoring is performed
during peacetime, when possible, and throughout the time US forces are deployed in a
TO. 

NOTE   The IM174A/PD and AN/PDR27 are being replaced by the AN/VDR2 Radiac Set. The
AN/VDR-2 detects lower levels of gamma and beta radiation than the AN/PDR27 and
higher levels of gamma radiation than the IM-174A/PD.
 
     c. Decontamination. There are two methods for nuclear decontamination: aging and
removing. Aging is the process of allowing natural radiation decay to occur. The time
necessary for this decay to take place depends upon the isotopes present; each has a
different decay rate (half-life). Aging may not be possible when there is a short
food supply. In some instances, such as with induced radioactivity, it may be the
only way to decontaminate. Removing nuclear contamination from areas, personnel,
food, or moving equipment to another location eliminates the immediate hazard. To
determine which decontamination method is required, food supplies are divided into
groups. See Table F-1 for additional information on food items and decontamination. 
     (1) Group II--Food in sealed and dust-proof packing such as cans, jars,
fiberboard, and cellophane. These products are easily decontaminated by removing the
radioactive dust covering the packing. This is done by brushing, washing with soap
and water, or removing the packing (depending on the type of packing material). If
radiation is still detected after removing the dust, repeat the brush/wash procedure
and remonitor. If radiation is still present, the food itself is then considered
radioactive (induced radiation) and is unfit for consumption. Decontamination of
induced radiation is possible only through aging. After aging one to two weeks, the
food should be safe for consumption. After surface decontamination, the contents are
safe to eat unless the food has induced radiation. 
     (2) Group III--Unprotected food. The method chosen to decontaminate unprotected
food items will depend upon whether or not the food supply is critical. If the food
supply is not critical, the contaminated items are isolated and allowed to
decontaminate by aging. If the food supply is critical, food with surface
contamination can, in principle, be decontaminated by removing the contaminated
surface, or by washing. 
     (3) Some products can be decontaminated by washing, peeling, or trimming the
outer skin or leaves. Decontaminate potatoes and hard-skinned fruits and vegetables
by washing or scrubbing under running water, followed by peeling or scraping, then
washing again. Potatoes, carrots, beets, and turnips can be washed at the supply
depot. However, do not wash beans, rice, and onions until they are delivered to the
field kitchen; washing reduces their storage quality and shelf life. Citrus fruits,
pineapples, corn, peas, beans, melons, pumpkins, cabbage, and nuts can be peeled.
Decontaminate cucumbers, tomatoes, cherries, cranberries, grapes, pears, plums, and
thin-skinned squash by soaking in a water or detergent solution and rinsing with
vigorous agitation or brushing. Apricots, peaches, most berries, asparagus, broccoli,
and leafy vegetables cannot be satisfactorily decontaminated because of fuzzy
surfaces, irregular shapes, or small size which makes washing difficult. 
     Fresh carcass meat, sausages, and fish can be decontaminated by several washings
with cold water. The exterior layer of the food item is removed if radioactivity is
still present. There is, however, a risk of contaminating the inner parts of the
foodstuff in the process. Cooking with several changes of water is the last step in
decontamination. 
     Decontaminate hard cheeses, margarine, and butter by cutting off the outer layer
to a depth of 2.5 to 3 cm. 
Let cooking oils stand for 3 to 5 days, then pour off the contaminated layer; use a
funnel to control spillage. 
     Nonperishable items that are hard to decontaminate, such as flour, sugar, and
salt can be set aside allowing natural radioactive decay. When supplies are short,
dilute the contamination by mixing with uncontaminated food, This will reduce the
total amount of radioactive exposure in foods prepared using these contaminated
items.  Decontaminate air permeable, double sacked goods by removing the outer sack.
If the inner sack is free of radiation, double sack the food again to restore
protection. However, when contamination is present on the inside bag, the food in
contact with the bag is likely to be contaminated. Three methods can be used to
handle this type of contaminated product. The easiest method involves spraying the
bag of dry goods (except sugar or salt) with water. This will wet a layer of the food
inside the bag. The wet layer can be removed when the bag contents are emptied. The
uncontaminated contents are scooped back into clean packaging. Another method
involves using melted paraffin to uniformly coat the outside of the bag. The paraffin
solidifies after 30 to 40 minutes, then the bag with the radioactive contamination
can be removed from the contents. Although this method will seal the radioactive
substance in the wax, it probably will not remove the layer of contaminated food
product inside the bag. For the third method, form a piece of sheet metal into a
cylinder the same height as the bag and 4 to 6 cm smaller in diameter. Insert the
cylinder into the bag, then remove the top 3 to 4 cm of the contaminated product.
Carefully scoop the remaining product out into a clean sack. With the cylinder still
in place, fold the bag down catching the contaminated product on plastic sheeting, or
a tarpaulin. When using this method, mixing the contaminated portion with the
uncontaminated portion is a problem. Check for contamination remaining in the
product.  Boiling or cooking has no effect on radioactive contamination.       (4)
Group IV--Food contaminated through the food-chain. It is not practical to
decontaminate this food. Meat and milk are the two most common foodstuffs
contaminated in this way. 
     Milk may be decontaminated to a safe level by a complicated ion exchange
process. The I-131 activity will decline rapidly during storage of milk and
milk-products, although the Cesium and Strontium activity will remain almost constant
for years. In an area with high-level fallout, milk is withdrawn from human
consumption. The duration of withdrawal will be dependent upon the type of fallout
and levels. 
     Meat may be decontaminated to a safe level by soaking in water or brine. Cesium
is loosely bound in the meat. By repeated soaking of meat cut in small pieces, most
of the Cesium activity will be removed. Traditional meat preserving, such as salting
with brine, will remove up to 60 to 70 percent of the Cesium activity. See Table F-2. 
Fruits, vegetables, root-crops, and grain products may also contain hazardous amounts
of radioactivity if ingested. 
     (5) Food animals. Food animals that have been exposed to fallout should be
considered fit for consumption and slaughtered using routine inspection and slaughter
procedures. In those cases where the animal has been exposed to fallout, but is not
scheduled for immediate slaughter, the radiation burden can be reduced by moving the
animal to an uncontaminated area (barn if available) and washing it with soap and
water. Mild radiation sickness does not necessarily mean that the animals cannot be
used for food. If the animals have been exposed to an internal radiation hazard, the
meat can be eaten if the internal organs are discarded. Chickens that have eaten
radioactive material may lay contaminated eggs, but most of the radioactivity will be
concentrated in the shells. The white and yolk will be free of harmful amounts of
radiation and can be eaten. Chickens will not lay eggs if the radioactive body burden
is large enough that their eggs are unfit to eat. 
     d. Considerations When Decontamination is Not Possible. When food cannot be
decontaminated, sealing the product in a wrapping material or container may be
needed. Sealing the product can reduce or shield the emanation of the contamination
and/or fix the contamination in place. The hazard from contaminated food is small
compared with that from external gamma radiation. Hungry people or animals should not
be denied food because of possible fallout contamination. It is not practicable or
desirable to pre-set maximum permissible limits of gross fallout radioactivity as a
basis for judging whether or not food should be used. Common sense must be applied in
establishing priorities for distribution of available food. For example, use the
least contaminated and the most protected food first; hold milk products for 1 to 2
weeks before use. 

F-4. Biological 
     a. Contamination. Biological warfare agents exist in the form of toxins and
microorganisms. The normal packaging and packing of food (to protect against
moisture, dust, and bacterial or other contamination) provides protection against
most biological agents. The exception may be toxins and biologically derived
substances. However, the protective methods used for chemical agents will also
protect against toxins and derived substances. Food in freezers,
refrigerators, and in refrigerated trucks or rail cars will be safe if these
containers remain sealed until the outer surfaces are decontaminated. 
     (1) It is unlikely that a biological agent will affect the appearance, taste, or
smell of the food enough for the change to be apparent. 
     (2) Packaging and packing materials are not life supportive to pathogenic agents
and are therefore self-decontaminating with the exception of spore-forming organisms. 
     (3) Most operational rations are packaged in metal containers, or encased in
heavy aluminum laminated plastics that can withstand boiling water; also, they are
impervious to arthropod penetration. This food is highly resistant to biological
agents. 
     (4) The use of unpackaged items (unwrapped meats, fresh fruits, and vegetables)
should be restricted; use only operational rations. Unprotected fresh food stored in
the open and close to the source of dissemination will become contaminated. 
     b. Detection. 
     (1) Rapid identification of agents used is absolutely essential to implement
effective countermeasures. Agent identification must be achieved quickly; it is the
first step in answering critical management questions. What adjustments must be made
in food preparation and distribution? What are the essential countermeasures? What is
the expected outcome of the incident? 
     (2) Samples of food that are suspected of being contaminated are transported to
the designated supporting laboratory. Samples must be accompanied by a description of
the samples, the sample collection procedures, and the circumstances which prompted
the collection. The designated medical laboratory in the TO will provide a
presumptive identification of the agent(s). Positive identification is accomplished
by designated laboratories in CONUS. 
     c. Decontamination. 
     (1) Food contaminated with toxins is handled in the same manner as food
contaminated with chemical agents. Food contaminated with microorganisms is handled
in the same manner as when contaminated with the more common foodborne
disease-producing microorganisms.       (2) Several methods are available to
decontaminate food items contaminated with biological agents. The following
decontamination methods are considered to be the minimum. See Table F-1. 
     (3) Group II food that is sealed in containers that are resistant to the passage
of biological agents require only that the exterior of the container be
decontaminated. Decontamination of these items are as follows: 
     For containers made of metal, glass, plastic, or porcelain:       1. Thoroughly
wash the container in potable water and soap, or in a disinfectant solution. If the
water used for washing is
contaminated, the soap and water wash may increase, not reduce, the contamination
hazard. After which, the food containers are immersed in a disinfectant solution for
30 minutes (see Table F-3); then rinsed with potable water, if available and time
permits. Chlorine solutions are not as reactive or corrosive as DS2. 
     2. Place the containers in boiling soapy water for 15 minutes; then rinse with
potable water. 
     NOTE 1. The chemical field decontamination kits do not meet the requirements to
decontaminate food supplies exposed to biological agents. 
     2. The same procedures should be followed even if there is only suspicion of a
biological warfare attack. 
     (b) Thoroughly wipe containers that will not withstand soaking with a cloth
soaked in a chlorine-detergent solution. Remove the food from the container and place
it in Group III. 
     (c) Metal or glass containers determined to have trichothecenes (Yellow Rain)
present can be decontaminated using DS2. Allow a contact time of 5 to 30 minutes for
the DS2 to neutralize the toxin. Then rinse the container with potable water. 
     (4) Group III food items that are not protected by the packaging material are
decontaminated or disposed of as follows: 
     (a) Decontaminate foods that can be peeled or pared by immersing them in a
disinfectant solution for 30 minutes, and then rinsing them with potable water (see
Table F-3). Peel or pare the items after decontamination, then wash and, if
appropriate, cook before eating.       (b) With the exception of certain heat-stable
toxins, heat is the most practical means of decontaminating food. Several heating
methods may be used, but the method chosen depends upon the type of food to be
decontaminated. The key is to apply as much heat as possible without rendering the
food unfit. 
               1.   Cook in a pressure-type cooker with 15 pounds of pressure at      
    250  F (121  C) for 15 minutes. 
               2.   Cook in a low-pressure cooker at 228  F (109  C) for 1 hour.      
          3.   Bake bread or related items at 400  F (204  C) for 40          
minutes. Bread made with toxin contaminated flour           (especially with
trichothecenes) is still toxic.                 4.   Bake or roast meat at 325  F
(163  C) for 2 hours.                 5.   Boil for at least 15 minutes when no other
method is           available. 
     (c) Although decontamination methods are provided above, vegetables such as
lettuce, broccoli, and cauliflower, or unwrapped meats that have been exposed to
biological agents should not be eaten.       (d) Foods, such as butter, ice cream,
and bread, that will not withstand any of the above treatments must be destroyed. 
     (5) Established meat inspection procedures are followed when animals exposed to
biological agents must be used for food. The meat must be thoroughly cooked. 

F-5. Chemical 
     a. Contamination. 
     (1) Contamination of foodstuffs by a chemical agent may occur at any point on
the battlefield. This contact may render the food unpalatable also. In many cases,
decontamination is difficult, thus, emphasis must be placed on protection. Keep food
supplies covered at all times. Take special precautions to protect food that is not
packed in protective packages. Unprotected food, forage, and grain supplies may be so
contaminated that their consumption will produce gastrointestinal irritation, or
systemic poisoning. Nerve agents, vesicants, and arsenicals are the most dangerous.
Field concentrations of phosgene, hydrocyanic acid, irritants, and smokes will seldom
be high enough to cause serious food contamination. The effect of CK on food is not
known. As a precaution, foods exposed to CK should be considered toxic. 
     (2) The effects of chemical agents on food depend on the nature of the agent and
the type of the food. The extent to which chemical agents penetrate food also depends
on the amount, form of dispersal (liquid [droplet size], or vapor) and duration of
exposure. Nerve agents and mustard will penetrate deeply into unprotected fatty foods
and will readily penetrate granular products such as grain and sugar. Liquid food
products can be completely contaminated. Arsenicals readily hydrolyze to poisonous
arsenical oxides in some foods. Foods can be divided into three categories based on
their water content, fat content, and crystalline structure: 
     (a) Foods having a high water content, a low fat content, and/or a crystalline
structure (fresh vegetables, fruits, sugar, salt, and eggs), will absorb mustard and
nerve agents, either as a liquid or as a vapor. Nerve agents will be hydrolyzed
slowly. 
     (b) Foods having a low fat content and an irregular (amorphous) structure
(flour, bread, grain, rice, cereals, dried fruits, dried vegetables, tea, coffee,
peas, and beans), readily absorb mustard and nerve agent in liquid form. As a vapor,
these agents are absorbed to some extent, but are easily removed by airing. 
     (c) Foods having a low water content and a high fat content such as butter, fat,
fatty oils, ham, cheese, milk, bacon, fatty meat, and fish, absorb mustard and nerve
agents such that removal of the agents is virtually impossible. 
     (3) Chemical agents can be physically and chemically absorbed into food. In
addition to the toxic effect, they often adversely affect taste, smell, and the
appearance of the food. However, chemical agents can cause the food to become very
toxic without causing any other changes in the food. Table F-4 shows the effects of a
number of chemical agents on food. Since food can be contaminated without any outward
change in appearance, the possibility of contamination must be assumed in a chemical
agent environment. Treat the food with the same precautions as established for known
contaminated items. 
     (4) The protective properties of packaging materials are dependent upon a number
of factors. The factors include the form of the agent (liquid versus vapor);
concentration and exposure time; weather (temperature, wind speed, and humidity); and
packaging material (the type of material, thickness, and the presence of folds,
tears, and small holes). Even the thinnest material will offer some protection and is
better than nothing at all. Therefore, always cover food supplies with whatever
material is available. Table F-5 summarizes the protection values of various
packaging materials against vapors and liquids. 
     (a) Operational rations (B rations, T rations, and MREs) are substantially
protected while contained in the shipping cases and especially if stored in the
original palletized unit load with an overlay of fiberboard, shrink wrap, or film
wrap. The worst case is pallets of subsistence contaminated by liquid droplets during
an attack. After the attack, high vapor concentrations will exist in the vicinity of
the palletized loads. If the outer barrier is permeable such as fiberboard, it is
possible that a liquid agent can seep through the overlay fiberboard and contact the
shipping containers in liquid form. Normally, with seepage resistant materials such
as shrink wrap as the outer barriers, only the vapors of the agent are found within
the pallet. 
     (b) While MREs are stored, the food is protected by up to six layers of
material. Multilayer barriers result in a complex diffusion process of the agent from
the outside towards the interior. Vapor penetration into nonhermetically sealed
spaces is a simple gaseous diffusion process. Permeation through packaging is a much
more complex process regardless of whether the challenge is a liquid or a vapor.      
1. Liquid is adsorbed into permeable materials such as fiberboard or chipboard. With
permeation-resistant materials (such as shrink wrap), the agent dissolves into, seeps
through, then desorbs from the barrier material. Shrink wrap provides adequate
protection. Fiberboard sheathing provides adequate protection against mustard agents,
but not against nerve agents. 
     2. The low density polyethylene used to construct the menu bag can absorb
chemical agents and possibly toxins. If the menu bag is removed from the shipping
container and is exposed to liquid contamination, enough agent may pass through the
bag to create a health hazard. Keep MREs in the shipping container until issued to
the soldier. The menu bags should then be kept under the same degree of protection as
the soldier. 
     3. The aluminum laminated materials used to construct the MRE (retort and
nonretort) pouches protect food from chemical
contamination if hermetically sealed. The only item in the MRE meal bag that is not
adequately protected is the spoon. 
     (5) Mylar and cellophane are resistant to chemical agents.       b. Detection. 
     (1) Currently, a field method for detecting chemical agent contamination in food
does not exist. Contamination is not always spread evenly throughout food; this makes
it impossible to take a single sample and determine the presence or absence of
chemical agents in the entire lot. Additionally, standardized laboratory tests have
not been developed for determining levels of chemical agents in food. Until a
specific method to detect chemical agents in food is available, reliance will have to
be made upon determination of contamination, or lack thereof, on the packaging
material; the integrity of the packaging material; the protective qualities of the
packaging material; and the penetration characteristics of the suspected chemical
agents. 
     (2) Food may become toxic without any change in outward appearance. Never taste
or smell food to determine if contamination is present in food. 
     (3) Veterinary and subsistence units have the following equipment available to
detect chemical agents in the field: 
     (a) The M8 Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm System consists of the M43 detector
unit and the M42 alarm unit. The detector unit is a portable, automatic,
point-monitoring device that is designed to be hand carried from point to point. The
M8 is used to provide early warning of a toxic agent position and detects the
presence of chemical vapors and aerosols. The M43 detects all nerve, blood, and
choking agents, and some blister agents. The M43A1 (the replacement for the M43) only
detects nerve agents. 
     (b) The M256 Chemical Agent Detector Kit detects and identifies nerve, blood,
and blister agents. The M256 is the most sensitive of the chemical agent vapor
detectors available. However, it is not a continuous, real time monitoring system. It
requires 15 to 20 minutes for sampling and analysis. 
     (c) The ABC-M8 VGH Chemical Agent Detector Paper can detect and differentiate
between nerve and blister agents by color change. It is intended to be used by
blotting and wiping surfaces suspected of contamination. The M8 paper will respond
with a visual color change in 10 seconds or less. 
     (d) The M9 Chemical Agent Detector Paper will detect liquid nerve (G & V) and
blister agents (H & L), but will not identify the specific agent or differentiate
between nerve and blister agents. The M9 tape is sensitive to droplets as small as
100æ, and will respond with a visual color change in 10 seconds or less. 
     (4) All subsistence in a chemical attack area are considered contaminated until
a survey can be conducted, preferably by veterinary and chemical personnel. Personnel
must be at MOPP Level 4 while conducting the survey. Concentrate the initial portion
of the survey on the adequacy of the storage facility and other protective measures
in preventing chemical agent contact with subsistence items. The area surrounding the
storage facility is examined for the presence of animals, rodents, birds, and
arthropods acting unusual, or dead in unusual numbers. If animals are present and
assistance is required in identifying the NBC agent, specimens can be collected and
submitted to the AML. Damage such as broken windows, holes, or loss of structural
integrity of the storage facility is noted. This information combined with knowledge
of the agent form (liquid or vapor), type of agent (which will indicate the degree of
persistency), and approximate time of attack will provide a risk assessment. Liquid
agents should not significantly penetrate an intact facility, but may produce vapor
contamination by offgassing. 
     (a) Upon entering the storage facility, the M8 can be used to determine the
presence of chemical vapors. However, precautions must be taken. The M42 alarm is not
to be used inside shelters, vehicles, vans, or other interior modes. Therefore, when
checking food storage facilities, the alarm unit must be left outside, turned off, or
disconnected. Do not tilt the M43 detector more than 45 degrees (because of the
liquids it contains). This is not a problem with the improved M43A1, but the M43A1
requires attachment of an exit port filter when used indoors. The M256 Chemical Agent
Detector Kit can be used to sample the air. 
     (b) Pre-position M9 chemical agent detector paper in food storage areas;
especially on the least protected pallets and in areas where droplets may enter, such
as near doors or windows. Examine the M9 paper for indications of liquid chemical
agents. If the M9 paper is positive, or if the packaging materials show the presence
of liquids or stains, use the M8 detector paper to determine the type of the agent.
If an agent is not indicated by the detector paper, then the amount of agent present
will be insufficient to cause secondary contamination when the outer package is
removed. 
     (5) Detection procedures become more complicated if a chemical agent has
penetrated or permeated through the packaging and packing materials. Unless liquid
has seeped through the cardboard, any agent in the interior of the shipping case will
be in a vapor form. Liquid seeping should be obvious. The sampler-detectors in the
M256 Chemical Agent Detector Kit do not have an aspirator for sampling the interior
of the case. However, there are several procedures that can be used. One is to open
the case, place the activated sampler-detectors inside the case, and then reclose the
case. Another is to punch holes in the case, place the activated sampler-detector
over the holes, and cover the sampler-detectors with an empty box or can (open end
down) to concentrate the vapors escaping from the case. Alternatively, remove the
food from the case and place it in a plastic bag with the sampler-detectors to
concentrate the vapors. These procedures require two sampler-detectors; one for blood
agents and one for nerve and blister agents. Neither method is very sensitive in low
concentrations of vapor as is expected to be present inside shipping containers. A
better method is to modify to M43 detector with a field expedient probe of Teflon
tubing attached to the detector's air inlet. Insert the open end of the tubing into a
hole in the case or package to sample the interior air. When available, the CAM can
be used; its design will allow aspiration of air from inside shipping cases. The CAM
can also be used to detect and identify liquid agents on a surface provided the agent
is vaporizing in sufficient quantity. The CAM gives a visual representation of a
hazard evaluation. 
     c. Decontamination. 
     (1) Decontamination is only required for contamination remaining 10 minutes or
longer. Decontamination efforts on subsistence items will normally be limited to
removal of the containers and carton overwrap material. 
     (2) The need for decontamination is primarily dictated by the type of chemical
agent used. The method of decontamination selected will depend upon the type of
packaging material used and the urgency with which the food is required. 
     (3) Food supplies in storage are not likely to be seriously contaminated if
reasonable protection precautions are taken. For this reason, large supplies of food
are not to be condemned as a whole simply because they have been exposed to possible
chemical contamination. A prompt and careful survey of the supplies may reveal that
only a few items have been contaminated to a level that decontamination is required.
Prompt segregation of the heavily contaminated portions will prevent, or minimize
contamination of the remainder. Foods without protective packages constitute the
major difficulty. 
     (4) Individual decontamination is performed by each soldier on those subsistence
items in his possession at the time of the attack. Individual decontamination is
limited to operational rations that are in original, intact containers. Unit-level
decontamination is performed by unit personnel under the supervision of unit NBC
personnel. Support decontamination is attempted at major subsistence storage
facilities. Again, decontamination is limited to packing material. Decontamination of
food itself is only attempted in emergency situations when alternative supplies are
not available.       (5) Start decontamination operations with the easiest method and
proceed to the most difficult. This allows for the removal of a relatively large
portion of the contamination in a minimum of time. The simplest procedure is to allow
the materials to age and air ("weather"). Substantial selfdecontamination will occur
with most agents. Exception are thickened mustard, thickened GD, and VX. Table F-6
provides the length of time for which contaminated subsistence supplies may present a
contact hazard. Weather elements that affect decontamination are-- 
     (a) Warm temperatures speed liquid agent offgassing and hasten the dispersion of
chemical agents into the air. 

     (b) High winds rapidly disperse chemical agent vapors and speed offgassing from
surfaces. 
     (c) Moisture causes chemical agents to react with water to form nontoxic or less
toxic chemicals. Heavy rain or rain of long duration can aid decontamination by
mechanically removing chemical agents.       (d) Even in cold weather, direct sun
rays warm surfaces above the air temperature and hasten the offgassing and
decomposition of chemical agents. 
     (6) Active decontamination is attempted only when weathering will not
decontaminate the packaging material in sufficient time. Decontamination procedures
can be enhanced by using heat to vaporize the chemical agent; by reaction with
decontaminants; or by removing with hot soapy water. 
     (a) The simplest (standard) decontamination materials are water and detergents.
An effective decontaminant is hot water used with the addition of soap or detergent
and scrubbing. Commercial abrasive powdered cleansers are effective decontaminants
for many surfaces (metal, glass, Formica), but not wood or soft plastics. 
     (b) Water can be used to flush chemical agents from surfaces. High-pressure
application produces a better cleansing action than low pressure. If the surface has
absorbed the agent, flushing will remove the surface contamination, but will not
affect the agent that is absorbed. 
     (c) Soaking contaminated items in boiling water is an excellent decontamination
method for some agents. Water alone will not be sufficient to decontaminate all
chemical agents. Soaking in warm or cold water may reduce the contamination slightly;
however, the hazard may not be reduced sufficiently even after prolonged soaking. If
hot water is not available, or if it might cause damage to the item, other methods of
decontamination should be considered, such as
decontaminating solutions or a caustic solution followed by thorough rinsing. 
     (d) Fibrous materials such as cloth and canvas are best decontaminated by
washing and scrubbing. 
     (e) Glass, metal, porcelain, and plastic surfaces are best decontaminated by
using hot water or hot soapy water. Some toxic materials are readily removed with no
more than slight abrasion or brushing. 
     (f) Painted, varnished, and waxed surfaces are generally smooth and nonporous.
Dust and liquids are readily removed by wiping, brushing, or vacuuming. Absorbed
materials are removed by hot water, detergent, or completing agents. None of these
surfaces stand up well to heavy abrasive techniques. Agents can be attacked and
removed by caustics, acids, and organic chemicals. Some of these surfaces readily
absorb agents, so weathering following decontamination is advisable.       (g) Rubber
is a porous material that can absorb agents. It is not easily decontaminated by
abrasive techniques. Warm, soapy water used with brushing is effective since it
removes some absorbed
contamination. Strong acids, alkalies, and organic solvents may deteriorate and
decompose rubber articles. 
     (7) Operational rations are the primary rations issued; always issue
uncontaminated stocks first. This allows for decontamination of contaminated stocks
without interrupting supply support. Normally, contaminated stocks are not issued.
The decision to issue contaminated items is based on the tactical situation,
criticality of the items, type and extent of contamination, and the time and
resources available for decontamination. Decontamination efforts on subsistence items
are limited to the containers and carton overwrap material. 
     (a) The MRE retort and nonretort food pouch may be decontaminated with soap and
water wash. The chemical agents will be removed by the solutions. 
     (b) Semipermeable materials (polyethylene menu bag, shrink wrap, and film wrap)
may have chemicals deposited not only on the surface, but also dissolved into the
matrix of the material. The chemicals can be removed from the surface by washing with
hot soapy water, but contaminant dissolved in the material is not removed. The
remaining agent can only be removed by weathering which can be accelerated through
the use of heat and sweeping the surface with air.       (c) Fiberboard is both
sorbent and permeable and acts like a blotter. Liquid decontaminants can force the
contaminant further into the fiberboard. Any attempt to decontaminate fiberboard
would be futile. The only alternatives are to remove the fiberboard, or to allow it
to weather. 
     (d) Palletized unit loads of MRE outerwraps can be decontaminated through the
aid of a forced clean air sweep in 4 to 5 days, compared to 3 weeks or more under
natural conditions without a forced air sweep. 
     (8) Contaminated food supplies are only handled by personnel trained in
decontamination methods and in MOPP Level 4. Contaminated food items are divided into
three groups as described below (see Table F-1 for additional information). 
     (a) Group I consists of canned and unopened packaged items which have been
exposed only to agent vapors. Most items in this group will be safe to issue after a
brief period of outdoor airing to remove clinging vapors. Table F-7 lists the
decontamination procedures for packaging materials contaminated with nerve agents,
mustards, and arsenical. 
     (b) Group II consists of canned and unopened packaged items which have been
contaminated with a liquid chemical agent. 
     1. Attempts to decontaminate porous packaging materials, such as cardboard or
wood, are likely to be unsuccessful and may result in spreading the contamination.
The best procedure in handling such items is to strip off the outer contaminated
coverings and examine the inner layer to see if penetration of the agent has
occurred. If it has, continue stripping off layers until an uncontaminated layer is
reached and place it in Group I. If the agent has penetrated to the food, place it in
Group III. 
     2. Food in cans or in other sealed, impermeable containers is not in danger of
chemical contamination. Because contamination is confined to the outer surface of the
sealed container, decontamination is accomplished by: immersion in boiling, soapy
water for 30 minutes and rinse; immersion in boiling water for 30 minutes; spray with
DS2; or to wash in hot soapy water, rinse, and aerate. Under no conditions should
contaminated containers be opened before they have been decontaminated and monitored. 
     3. Supertropical bleach and DS2 can be used on the polyethylene menu bag for up
to 24 hours without a significant change in appearance, tensile properties, and size
of the plastic. The use of DS2 will cause significant degradative changes to most
other plastics, while STB will cause little or no change. Also, DS2 may cause false
positive readings when using M8 or M9 paper, or the M256 Detector Kit to check
completeness of decontamination. 
     (c) Group III will consist of unpackaged or poorly packaged items which have
been exposed to an agent in either vapor or liquid form. Foodstuffs in this group
should be decontaminated only when absolutely necessary. The decision to use foods
that have been contaminated is to be made by the commander. Decontamination procedure
to be followed, in order, is: trim surface fat and grossly contaminated areas; wash
with water or 2-percent sodium bicarbonate solution; then boil in water.       1.
Boiling in water may be eliminated when the contamination has been only with the
vapors of irritant agents. When such an exposure has been light, aeration for a short
time may be used for
decontamination. 
     2. Frying, roasting, or broiling will not remove traces of blister agents from
meats. In general, salvage of foods heavily contaminated with droplets of the blister
agents, especially the arsenical blister agents, is not practical. Foods of high
water or fat content are unfit for consumption and reclamation is not practical when
contaminated with liquid mustard or a liquid nitrogen mustard.       3. When foods
have been exposed to blister agent vapor, they can be reclaimed by washing with
sodium bicarbonate solutions and rinsing with clear water, by intensive cooking, or
in the case of dry provisions, by 24 to 48 hours of aeration. Lean meat contaminated
with mustard vapor can be reclaimed by boiling in water for 30 minutes or more. With
nitrogen mustard vapor contamination, the meat should be boiled in a 2-percent sodium
bicarbonate solution. Discard the water used to boil the meat. 
     4. Nerve agent contamination is treated the same as blister agent contamination. 
     5. Food such as potatoes and hard-skinned fruits and vegetables can be
decontaminated by washing or scrubbing, followed by peeling or scraping, then washing
again. 
     6. Prepared food in open containers will be contaminated; it must be temporarily
isolated, or disposed of (bury or as directed by commander). 
     7. A food item that is contaminated with irritants can be decontaminated by
airing. Consumability is determined by taste rather than toxicity. 
     8. Phosgene is rapidly hydrolyzed, therefore, washing the food with water or
airing it will usually suffice. 
     9. Food contaminated with white phosphorous should be destroyed.       10.
Normally, hydrocyanic acid will have little effect on food supplies. The exposures
will most likely be as a vapor. However, foods with a high water content may become
unfit for consumption after exposure to high concentrations. 
     11. The effect of CK on foods is not known. Foods exposed to CK vapors are
considered toxic. 
     12. Table F-8 lists the decontamination procedures for unpackaged food
contaminated with a chemical agent. 
     (9) Decontaminating cattle, poultry, and other livestock is only attempted when
other sources of food are not available. Heavily contaminated animals should be
destroyed. Livestock contaminated lightly by phosgene, nerve agents, mustards, and
arsenicals (such as vapor or liquid) may be slaughtered in the early stages of
poisoning before the full effects of exposure are shown. If these animals are
slaughtered in the preliminary stages of poisoning and all tissues exposed to the
agent (the head, blood, lungs, organs, and local areas) are discarded, there is no
danger in consumption of the meat, provided the animal passes a pre-slaughter and
slaughter inspection. This is true even of animals poisoned by arsenical agents since
the edible tissue will contain amounts of arsenic too small to be toxic. Organs
(liver, brain, heart, kidney, and lungs) will contain more arsenic than the
musculature and are discarded. The meat must be well cooked. Personnel involved in
slaughtering procedures must be careful to prevent spreading contamination to the
meat and to themselves.       (10) Decontaminating forage and grain exposed to only
chemical agent vapors is by aeration. Aerated supplies, especially if mixed with
larger amounts of uncontaminated supplies, produces no ill effects when fed to
animals. Forage or grain heavily contaminated by liquid vesicants, especially
arsenicals, should not be used.   


Army Survival Field Manual, after a Nuclear incident:  Food Procurement   Although it
is a serious problem to obtain edible food in a radiation- contaminated area, it is
not impossible to solve. You need to follow a few special procedures in selecting and
preparing rations and local foods for use. Since secure packaging protects your
combat rations, they will be perfectly safe for use. Supplement your rations with any
food you can find on trips outside your shelter. Most processed foods you may find in
abandoned buildings are safe for use after decontaminating them. These include canned
and packaged foods after removing the containers or wrappers or washing them free of
fallout particles. These processed foods also include food stored in any closed
container and food stored in protected areas (such as cellars), if you wash them
before eating. Wash all food containers or wrappers before handling them to prevent
further contamination.   If little or no processed food is available in your area,
you may have to supplement your diet with local food sources. Local food sources are
animals and plants.   Animals as a Food Source    Assume that all animals, regardless
of their habitat or living conditions, were exposed to radiation. The effects of
radiation on animals are similar to those on humans. Thus, most of the wild animals
living in a fallout area are likely to become sick or die from radiation during the
first month after the nuclear explosion. Even though animals may not be free from
harmful radioactive materials, you can and must use them in survival conditions as a
food source if other foods are not available. With careful preparation and by
following several important principles, animals can be safe food sources.   First, do
not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed a bacterial
infection as a result of radiation poisoning. Contaminated meat, even if thoroughly
cooked, could cause severe illness or death if eaten.   Carefully skin all animals to
prevent any radioactive particles on the skin or fur from entering the body. Do not
eat meat close to the bones and joints as an animal's skeleton contains over 90
percent of the radio-activity.  The remaining animal muscle tissue, however, will be
safe to eat. Before cooking it, cut the meat away from the bone, leaving at least a
3-millimeter thickness of meat on the bone. (About 1\4 inch.)   Discard all internal
organs (heart, liver, and kidneys) since they tend to concentrate beta and gamma
radioactivity.   Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is
well done, cut it into less than 13-millimeter-thick pieces before cooking.  Such
cuts will also reduce cooking time and save fuel.  The extent of contamination in
fish and aquatic animals will be much greater than that of land animals. This is also
true for water plants, especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic food sources only in
conditions of extreme emergency.   All eggs, even if laid during the period of
fallout, will be safe to eat.  Completely avoid milk from any animals in a fallout
area because animals absorb large amounts of radioactivity from the plants they eat.  
    Plants as a Food Source     Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of
fallout on their outer surfaces or by absorption of radioactive elements through
their roots. Your first choice of plant food should be vegetables such as potatoes,
turnips, carrots, and other plants whose edible portion grows underground.   These
are the safest to eat once you scrub them and remove their skins.  Second in order of
preference are those plants with edible parts that you can decontaminate by washing
and peeling their outer surfaces. Examples are bananas, apples, tomatoes, prickly
pears, and other such fruits and vegetables.   Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit,
or plant that you cannot easily peel or effectively decontaminate by washing will be
your third choice of emergency food.  The effectiveness of decontamination by
scrubbing is inversely proportional to the roughness of the fruit's surface.
Smooth-surfaced fruits have lost 90 percent of their contamination after washing,
while washing rough-surfaced plants removes only about 50 percent of the
contamination.   You eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last
resort because you cannot effectively decontaminate them by peeling or washing.  
Other difficult foods to decontaminate by washing with water include dried fruits
(figs, prunes, peaches, apricots, pears) and soya beans. In general, you can use any
plant food that is ready for harvest if you can effectively decontaminate it. Growing
plants, however, can absorb some radioactive materials through their leaves as well
as from the soil, especially if rains have occurred during or after the fallout
period.  Avoid using these plants for food except in an emergency.


Page 553  John " Lofty" Wiseman;  The SAS Survival Handbook;  
ISBN  0 00 26531407,  (unabridged)

IMPORTANCE OF SHIELD TIME, AFTER A NUCLEAR EXPLOSION.
***********************************************************************
The radioactivity to which an unprotected person could be exposed in
the first few hours will exceed that received during the rest of the
week.   That in the first week will exceed that accumulated during the
rest of a lifetime spent in the same contaminated area.   It is
therefore important to be shielded during the initial stages.
***********************************************************************

Page 554  John " Lofty" Wiseman;  The SAS Survival Handbook; 
 ISBN  0 00 26531407,  (unabridged)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
VENTURING  OUT  OF  YOUR  FALLOUT  SHELTER  FOR  WATER
     If desperate for water a brief venture out, lasting not more than
30 minutes, is permissible on the third day.  On the seventh day a
further exposure, of up to half an hour, can be extended on the eighth
up to one hour and then from two to four hours for the next four days
and from the thirteenth day normal working, followed by rest in the
shelter. 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^


Basic Nuclear War Survival,    SAS Handbook
John " Lofty" Wiseman;  The SAS Survival Handbook;  
ISBN  0 00 26531407,    (unabridged)
pages 551 to 556   

RADIATION
     Potentially harmful radiation is used to diagnose and treat illness and
radioactive material is used to produce nuclear power. Exposure to x-rays must be
carefully controlled.  Technicians operating such equipment usually do so from behind
suitable screens.  Nuclear installations and the fissile materials they use present
much greater dangers. 
     Nuclear radiation from fissile material can be tolerated in small doses -- a low
level of background radiation was always present long before man split the atom. 
Radiation is measured in roentgens per hour (R) and, if a very small portion of the
body is exposed, a healthy person can tolerate brief exposure to a charge of 5000R --
but a dose of only 700R to the whole body is lethal.    
     Nuclear power stations, research plants and nuclear waste processing plants use
shields, special clothing and decontamination procedures to protect their staff and
prevent contamination of others and the environment.  But despite elaborate safety
systems and controls leaks and accidents have occurred and the problems associated
with the transportation and disposal of radioactive waste have not yet been
satisfactorily solved.
     In the United States and Britain each community near a nuclear plant has an
emergency plan for dealing with a radiological incident.  To find out about plans
contact your local authority.  Local radio stations would be used to issue emergency
information and you could be told to evacuate the area. If not, stay inside as much
as possible.  Exposure to small emissions of radioactive iodine are treated with
potassium iodine tablets which delay its absorption.
     Anyone who may have been subjected to a radiation leak should wash the WHOLE
body thoroughly with soap and plenty of clean water and seek expert help immediately. 

NUCLEAR WEAPONS
     The offensive use of nuclear power is likely to be preceded by a gradual
escalation of the military situation.  There is likely to be a period when those who
wish could take positive protective measures. However there is no guarantee of
warning and proper fall-out shelters cannot be erected rapidly.  Many people believe
that it is worth building shelters now as a precaution.  Others, especially in target
areas, may feel the whole operation pointless.  Any who escape annihilation will need
a survival mentality more than in any other survival situation. 

NUCLEAR  EXPLOSION

     The immediate hazards of a nuclear explosion are blast, heat and radiation.  The
severity of their effects will depend upon the size and type of weapon, distance or
height of the explosion, weather conditions and terrain.  Heat and blast are like
those produced by conventional explosives, but many times more powerful. 

0.  BLAST.   The detonation causes the initial shock-wave.  Even more powerful is the
compression of the air produced by the rapid expansion of the fireball.  The wave of
pressure traveling outwards from the point of detonation will collapse buildings,
uproot trees and fill the air with-flying debris, well before the heat follows. 
Approximately half the total energy of the explosion is expended in this way.  When
the blast wave has passed, air rushes back to fill the void causing further damage.
At distances where the initial blast has only weakened structures this vacuum effect
will finish the job. 

0.  HEAT.   The thermal radiation (heat and light) produced by a nuclear explosion
reaches temperatures hotter than the sun and includes great intensities of
ultraviolet, infrared and visible light rays.  Close to the point of detonation all
inflammable materials are ignited -- even vaporized.  In the case of the Hiroshima
bomb, exposed skin was burned at a distance of 4km (2 «  miles).  Today's weapons are
MANY times that power and their effects comparably more extensive.  Even seeing the
flash of the explosion is likely to cause serious eye damage and burns to the skin. 

0.  RADIOACTIVITY.   In addition to the thermal radiation, nuclear fission produces
alpha and beta particles and gamma rays.  Although radioactive fallout settles to
earth, with the appearance of white ash or dust, this is the residue of destroyed
matter not the radioactivity itself.  That cannot be detected by human senses.  A
Geiger counter is required to register its presence, indicated by a dial or a sound
signal which becomes increasingly agitated as the radiation increases.  
     ALPHA PARTICLES  have low penetrating capabilities and it is easy to shield them
off.  They cannot penetrate the skin but they do present serious problems if ingested
or inhaled. 

     BETA PARTICLES  are only slightly penetrating and heavy clothing and boots will
give full protection.  On exposed skin they cause burns.  If ingested they attack
bone, the gastrointestinal tract, thyroid gland and other organs. 

     GAMMA RAYS  are highly penetrating.  They travel much slower than alpha and beta
rays, damaging all body cells. 

     Common symptoms of exposure to radioactivity are nausea, vomiting, general
weakness. Ulcer-like sores appear on the skin, which tends to take on a grey hue. 

RESIDUAL RADIATION
     The initial radiation given off during the first minute of a nuclear explosion
can kill -- but it lasts only a short time.  Once the blast has passed, so has the
initial radiation threat. However, exposure to residual radiation can be equally
dangerous.
     The amount of residual radiation depends on how the bomb was detonated.  If it
was high above the ground and the fireball did not touch the earth little residual
radiation is produced -- what the strategists call a 'clean bomb'.  If exploded on or
near the ground, a huge quantity of soil and debris is sucked upwards to a great
height and falls back to earth as radioactive dust.  Heavier particles fall in the
vicinity of the explosion, but lighter ones may be carried by wind over a wide area
-- spreading the radioactivity.
     In time radiation decays -- the cities of both Hiroshima and Nagasaki have been
rebuilt and re- inhabited.  However, while as much as 70% of these particles remain
radioactive for only one day or less, it takes others years for their radiation to
decay. 

Page 553  John " Lofty" Wiseman;  The SAS Survival Handbook;   ISBN  0 00 26531407, 
(unabridged)
IMPORTANCE OF SHIELD TIME, AFTER A NUCLEAR EXPLOSION.
*********************************************************************** The
radioactivity to which an unprotected person could be exposed in the first few hours
will exceed that received during the rest of the week.   That in the first week will
exceed that accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent in the same contaminated
area.   It is therefore important to be shielded during the initial stages.
*********************************************************************** 
RADIATION SHELTERS
     In default of a deep bunker equipped with air, water and food supplies, in which
to sit out a nuclear conflict and its aftermath, the best protection is a deep trench
with a roof covered by a meter or more of earth.  If the detonation is sufficiently
distant not to produce total destruction, the trench and earth will protect from
blast, heat and radiation.    
     Look for terrain that has natural shelter, such as ravines, gullies, ditches and
rocky outcrops. If you do not have a trench shelter prepared, start digging -- FAST! 
As soon as the hole is big enough, get inside it to continue digging, to minimize
exposure to radiation if you are caught-out while still digging. Rig up a roof. Even
if only of cloth, it will stop dust falling on you. Penetrating rays can still reach
you so try to get a meter of earth above you.          If caught in the open get to
your shelter as quickly as possible. Once under cover, remove outer garments and bury
them under a foot of soil at one end of the bottom of the shelter.  Do not venture
out until absolutely necessary and do not re-use your discarded garments.  Under no
circumstances move out of the shelter in the first 48 hours.  
Page 554  John " Lofty" Wiseman;  The SAS Survival Handbook;   ISBN  0 00 26531407, 
(unabridged)
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ VENTURING 
OUT  OF  YOUR  FALLOUT  SHELTER  FOR  WATER
     If desperate for water a brief venture out, lasting not more than 30 minutes, is
permissible on the third day.  On the seventh day a further exposure, of up to half
an hour, can be extended on the eighth up to one hour and then from two to four hours
for the next four days and from the thirteenth day normal working, followed by rest
in the shelter. 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
*********************************************************************** SHIELDING 
     Strictly speaking, it is impossible to shield completely from all radiation but
a sufficient thickness of shelter material will reduce the level of radiation to a
negligible level.  Below are some materials, and the thickness required to reduce
radiation penetration by 50%. 
     Material               Meters           Feet
     Iron and steel         0.21               .7 
     Concrete               0.66              2.2
     Brick                  0.60              2.0
     Soil                   1.00              3.3
     Ice                    2.00              6.6 
     Wood                   2.60              8.8 
     Snow                   6.00             20.3
*********************************************************************** 
DECONTAMINATION 
     If your body, or even your clothing, has been exposed to radiation, it must be
decontaminated. Once in shelter scrape earth from the shelter bottom and rub it over
the exposed parts of your body and your outer clothing. Brush it off and throw the
soil outside.  Wipe the skin with a clean cloth if possible. More effectively, if
water is available, wash the body thoroughly with soap and water instead of soil. 

MEDICAL CARE
     ALL wounds must be covered to prevent alpha and beta particles entering through
them.  Burns, whether caused by beta particles and gamma rays or by firestorm heat,
should be washed with clean water and covered.  Urine may be used, if no
uncontaminated water is available.  The eyes should be covered to prevent further
particles entering and a damp cloth placed over the mouth and nose to prevent further
inhalation.    
     Radiation affects the blood and increases susceptibility to infection.  Take all
precautions -- even against colds and respiratory infections. 

AFTERMATH
     Unless stored in deep shelters, or with special protection, all foodstuffs are
likely to have absorbed some measure of radioactivity.  Be cautious of foods
containing a high salt content, dairy products, such as milk and cheese, and sea
foods. After tests it was found that food with salt and other additives had a higher
concentration of radioactivity than food without them.  The safest canned foods are
soups, vegetables and fruits.  Cured and processed meat are more readily contaminated
than fresh.  Bone absorbs the highest levels of radioactivity, then lean meat, with
fat lowest. 

WATER
     Unless it is from a protected source, do not drink any water for at least 48
hours after detonation. Avoid water from lakes, pools, ponds and other static surface
water. Filter all water and boil it before drinking.    
     The following sources are the least contaminated (in order of least risk): 
          1. Underground wells and springs 
          2. Water in underground pipes/containers 
          3. Snow taken from deep below the surface 
          4. Fast-flowing rivers 

     Dig a hole by a fast-flowing stream and allow water to filter down into it. 
Scrape off any scum that-forms on the surface and scoop up water.  Filter it through
layers of sand and pebbles (dig deep to obtain these) in a can with holes punched in
the bottom, or through a stocking.  Boil in an uncontaminated vessel.    
     Decontaminate utensils by washing thoroughly in fast flowing or boiled water. 

ANIMALS AS FOOD 
     Animals that live underground have less exposure to radiation than those that
live on the surface: rabbits, badgers, voles and similar animals are the best bets
but, when they venture out, they too will be contaminated. However, such food sources
must be made use of.  You will increase your own contamination -- but the alternative
may be to starve.    
     To reduce contamination from meat do NOT directly handle carcases, wear gloves
or use cloth to cover the hands while carefully skinning and washing.  Avoid meat in
direct contact with the bone.  The skeleton retains 90% of radiation so leave at
least 3mm (1\8 in) on the bone.  Muscle and fat are the safest part of the meat. 
Discard ALL internal organs.  Fish and aquatic animals will have a higher
contamination than land animals from the same area.  Birds will be particularly
heavily contaminated and should not be eaten.  However, eggs are safe to eat.  
PLANTS AS FOOD 
     Root vegetables with edible tubers growing underground are safest -- carrots,
potatoes and turnips, for instance.  Wash them well and peel before cooking.    
     Smooth-skinned fruits and vegetables are next safest.  Plants with crinkly
foliage are the hardest to decontaminate, because of their rough texture. They should
be avoided. 

LONG-TERM SURVIVAL 
     Predictions of the long-term results on the environment of major thermonuclear
conflict differ widely.  The possibility of a 'nuclear winter', with consequent
effect on climate and plant life far beyond strike areas, would make even subsistence
agriculture difficult.  In the short-term however, and in the case of limited
conflict, much of the advice in Home Front will be relevant. 


Nuclear War Survival,     Home Front 
John " Lofty" Wiseman;  The SAS Survival Handbook;  
ISBN  0 00 26531407,    (unabridged)  pages 557 to 567

     You do not have to be miles away from civilization to be caught in a survival
situation.  Natural disaster, civil disturbance or military action could cut you off
from all the usual services and food supplies.  Until they can be re-established, you
would be left to manage on your own resources and skills. 
     With no power supplies, central heating, hot water, lighting, air-conditioning
and refrigeration would all cease.  Battery radios and television would for a time
give some news of the rest of the world, if the situation is not global, but post,
telephone and newspapers would no longer be available.  As mains water supplies
ceased to function, so taps would run dry and toilets would become unusable.    
     In the countryside there would be natural resources to draw upon.  In large
cities shops would soon be emptied of food -- sold or looted -- and plants in parks
and gardens would be rapidly stripped, once any private stocks had been exhausted. 
The population would have to make forays out into the countryside to survive, or
abandon the town, if not in a siege situation.  Suburban dwellers have more vegetable
plots and open spaces to provide foodstuffs.  They would be less dependent upon
shops.  Those away from major centers are more likely to have their own food stocks,
because they cannot shop at will.    
     Most families have some food in store. It should be rationed and supplemented
with whatever can be found. 

FOOD  STORES
     Storing food is a good habit to get into, especially if you live in an isolated
place, which can become completely cut-off.  If you have a year's food supply in
store, and add to it as you use it, you will not only be able to survive the worst
but will be able to live at last year's prices. 
     The stock does not have to be established in one go.  Build it up gradually,
taking advantage of special offers in supermarkets.  Buy an extra tin or packet and
put it by.  Store your foods in a cool, dry, dark place and off the ground --
moisture and heat cause bacteria and molds.  If stores are left on the floor insects
and rodents will help themselves.  Make sure that all containers are insect- and
rodent-proof. 

REMEMBER
     Rotate cans, so that the contents do not settle, and separate.  Label each can
or packet with a color-fast waterproof pen, noting contents and date of storage.  Use
in sequence -- the oldest first.  Store methodically and if a label falls off, you
should still have a good idea of the contents. 
     Choice of foods will depend upon individual taste, but straightforward products
(corned beef in preference to beef stew and dumplings) will keep better and can be
used in a greater variety of ways. Wheat keeps better than flour -- it is less
susceptible to moisture, light, insects and temperature change. Wheat found in the
pyramids was found in good condition after thousands of years.  However you must
grind it to make flour, so invest in a small hand grinder.  
KEEP IT SEALED
     Screw-top sweet jars are ideal for storage and plastic containers with
tight-fitting lids can also be used.  Do not over fill them so that they distort and
the lid does not fit correctly.  Use adhesive tape to seal the lids.  Reseal after
using some but remember that once opened the contents will begin to deteriorate. 

*********************************************************************** RECOMMENDED 
FOODS  /  SHELF  LIFE
Wheat- Indefinitely below 15 degrees Centigrade (65 degrees Fahrenheit) Milk powder-
2 years
Honey- Indefinitely
Egg powder- 2 years
Salt- Indefinitely if absolutely dry
Canned goods- 3-5 years (replace regularly)
Oats- Indefinitely  
Cooking oil- 2 years (replace regularly)
*********************************************************************** 
RATIONS
     Complete rations are available with various menus either freeze-dried or
dehydrated.  They are lighter and less space-consuming than canned foods. 
Freeze-dried are best for both taste and texture and retain minerals which are lost
in dehydration. Although both need water for reconstitution they can, in dire
circumstances, be eaten as a dry munch. 

VITAMINS
     Multi-vitamin tablets are also a good investment.  The body can store up to a
month's supply of most vitamins, then health will suffer if they are not replaced. 
In stress situations they are more rapidly used up.  The B family (and minerals,
calcium and zinc) are first to go.  Vitamin tablets do not have unlimited shelf-life
-- check manufacturer's instructions. 

OTHER FOODS
     Dried fruit and nuts are nutritious and should also be included -- raisins,
sultanas and currants all keep well.  Nuts in their shells keep so long as they are
dry.  Packets of dried salted nuts such as peanuts, brazils and walnuts, are highly
nutritious. 
     Potato powder is a great filler for hungry stomachs and can be prepared in
several ways to make it palatable. 
     Brown rice has more nourishment than long-grain white rice which loses all its
goodness when boiled. 

STORE LOCATION
     The cooler the storage area, the better the stores will keep a cellar is ideal
but there may be a problem with dampness so keep all the stores off the ground and
inspect them regularly.  If there is a skylight in the cellar, cover it.  The store
is best kept dark.          An attic is also convenient for storage -- the stores are
not in the way of day-to-day activities. However, it may get very warm in summer and
access may be difficult -- especially if a ladder is the only means of entry -- which
may be awkward when trying to rotate bulky stores.  The roof is also a vulnerable
position in most kinds of disaster situations.  In an area where hurricanes can be
expected an attic is not a good choice.  In territory liable to flooding a cellar
would be equally at risk.  Under stairs is another area that may offer some
protection, though perhaps limited space.  Advantage should be taken of wherever is
most conveniently available to store not only food but also medical supplies,
disinfectants, cleansing materials -- and water.  If you divide your stores into more
than one area, each with a variety of items, you should be well prepared. 

     ADD TO YOUR STORES:
     Toothpaste and soap
     Disinfectant and bleach
     Washing powder
     General medical supplies
     Medicines: for dysentery, for stomach upsets, for allergies,             general
pain-killers,
     Bandages and dressings
 
PRIORITIES
     In a domestic situation there is likely to be shelter, unless it has been
totally destroyed, or the area has become a danger zone and evacuation is imperative. 
Damage can be patched up to provide some protection from the elements and more
permanent repairs undertaken as soon as possible.  
     Water supplies are always likely to be a problem -- for even during a flood
drinking water is scarce.  Fortunately there are likely to be some immediate reserves
on the premises and, with warning of a crisis, these can be supplemented.
     Fire for warmth is less of a problem, since there will be burnable materials in
the house and surroundings.  Infection may prove the greatest danger and strict
hygiene and sanitary practices must be enforced. 

WATER
     Although a family of four can use a considerable amount of water each week, only
a small percentage of this is for drinking -- a requirement of about 2 liters (4
pints) per day per person.  If warned of a crisis, fill as many receptacles as
possible, especially in a hot climate.  A bath holds many gallons; increase its
capacity by blocking the overflow.  Use dustbins, buckets, pots -- even strong
polythene bags if they are only half filled and securely tied off         Store water
in the dark.  If light gets to it green algae will develop.  Water is bulky and
heavy.  Do not store it in the attic or it may bring the ceiling down.    
     Even without advance warning there will be water in the storage tank, heating
pipes, radiators, perhaps an aquarium, and the toilet cistern will hold another few
gallons -- don't flush it.  Outdoors you may have a swimming pool, water butts, or a
pond -- even water from a car radiator can be utilized.  Central heating water is
usually treated with a de-oxygenizing agent and a car radiator probably contains
anti-freeze, so water from these places is best kept for cleaning purposes.  If it
has to be used for drinking boil it, collect the steam in clean cloths and wring them
out. Then re-boil. (Or, see Essentials.)       Boiled water tastes flat and distilled
water has even less taste.  It is easy to restore some of its sparkle by putting
oxygen back into it: simply pour the water back and forth from one vessel to another. 
A small piece of wood charcoal placed in the vessel while it boils also helps taste. 

*********************************************************************** FILTERING AND
STERILIZING 
     Filter and sterilize ALL water before using it for drinking.  If circumstances
make it impossible to boil water sterilize it with chemicals. 
     FILTERING:  Allow water to stand in its container so that sediment settles at
the bottom.  Then siphon it into a filter made up of a nylon stocking (or other
porous material) stuffed with layers of sand (bottom), charcoal and moss (top). 
     STERILIZING:  Clear water: add 2 drops household bleach per liter (1 per pint)
or 3 drops 2% tincture of iodine per liter (6 per pint)       Cloudy water: double
the quantities of bleach or iodine      Large quantities:  1\2  teaspoonful bleach
per liter (2 teaspoonsful per gallon) 
*********************************************************************** 
COOKING IN WATER
     Water in which food is to be cooked  MUST  be boiled for at least eight minutes,
but water not boiled for as long can be used for heating cans of food provided it
makes no contact with the foodstuff.         Stand the can in water, pierce a small
hole in the top to avoid the risk of explosion and plug it with a twist of cloth so
that water cannot enter the can.   Alternatively, boil the water, remove it from the
heat and place the un-pierced can in the water.  This takes longer for the can to
heat through. 

WATER  CATCHMENT
0.  Catch all available rainwater.  Break off lower sections of down pipes and divert
the flow into a container such as a dustbin.  Even if rainwater is pure, guttering
may contaminate it -so sterilize.  0.  Supplement water receptacles with tarpaulins
or plastic sheets supported on sticks.  Rinse between showers to reduce tainting.  0. 
Dig a hole and line it with a plastic sheet or concrete for water storage.  Cover it
to prevent evaporation and debris falling in.  0.  If the local water table is high
you may be able to dig down to water -- there may even be a well on your property
which could be reopened.
0.  Solar and vegetation stills (see Essentials) are other ways of obtaining water. 

WATER  CONSERVATION
     Do not waste water washing clothes, other than underclothing.  Never throw water
away after use. Allow sediment to settle and it can be used again.
     It is very important to wash the hands before preparing food, but the rest of
the body can wait until it rains.  The body produces natural oils and, as long as the
pores are kept open, health will not be affected.  You soon get used to the smell and
social occasions are rare in a crisis situation.  If showers are few and far between,
use a damp cloth for a strip wash cloths left out on lawns or hushes over night may
gather enough moisture for a wipe down without using up your water stores.    
     Injured persons must receive priority for bathing and all their dressings should
be boiled regularly. 

FIRE
     The warmth and comfort of a fire are great morale boosters, but its most
important use will be for boiling water and preserving food.  These must take
priority in the use of fuel.
     Blocked fireplaces should be opened up again and chimneys checked for
obstructions.  If they are not clear there is considerable risk of setting fire to
the chimneys themselves and thus to the house.  
TO  CLEAR  A  CHIMNEY
     Tie a holly bush or a similar shrub to a long rope and from the rooftop lower
the rope down the chimney (a stone tied on the end will ensure it drops). Now pull
down the holly bush and it will clear the chimney. 

IMPROVISED  FIREPLACES
     Where there are no fireplaces metal containers, metal dustbins lids and central
heating radiators can all be used to light a fire on.  In flats with concrete floors
a fire could be lit directly on the floor.  If you have a barbecue stand make good
use of it.       Never leave a fire indoors unattended.  Even one in a proper grate
should be allowed to die down for the night, if no one is going to stay up to watch
it. 

FUEL
     Start with garden furniture, trees, shrubs, bean sticks, swings, ladders, tool
handles.  When these run out start on furnishings.  Carpets, curtains and cushions
will all burn.  Cardboard, books and rolled up newspapers will also give off a
surprising amount of heat.  All kinds of vehicle fuel can also be burned as well as
the conventional heating and lighting oils. 

*********************************************************************** WARNING
     Many modern fabrics and furnishings, especially PVC and foam-block furniture,
produce poisonous gases when burned.  If burning these items make a fireplace in the
garden or, if forced to burn them in a flat, make the fire near an open window. 
Cover the face with a damp cloth when you need to go near the fire to tend to it and
things being heated on it. 
*********************************************************************** 
FOOD
0.  Check on all the food in the house and ration it immediately.  0.  Use the
perishable foods first.  Fatty foods are the first to deteriorate and canned foods
the last. 
0.  Remember that, once electric power fails, the refrigerator and freezer cease to
function -- though they may take some time to defrost, if you open their doors as
seldom and briefly as possible. 0.  Boil milk and it will keep longer.
0.  Boil eggs or coat them in a layer of fat -- if you have izinglass (a traditional
method of preserving fresh eggs) simply immerse them in it. 
0.  Cook meat, wrap it in cloth and bury it in the earth.   Cook pork first (which
has the highest fat content), then lamb, then beef (which is the best meat to
preserve). 
0.  Once meat has been cooked and allowed to cool, do NOT reheat it or you may risk
food-poisoning. 
0.  You can only cook so much at a time, so leave the rest in the refrigerator or
freezer while they are still cool places.  
FOOD  FROM  THE  GARDEN
     The vegetables with four petals, including all the brassicas, from wallflowers
to cabbages are edible.  Hollyhocks, though not very tasty, are nutritious.  Worms,
slugs and snails are also edible.  AVOID bulbs such as daffodils, tulips and aconites
which are all poisonous.  
FURTHER  AFIELD
     Explore parks and open spaces for other vegetation and for hunting and trapping
wildlife. Birdlife in cities -- especially pigeons and starlings, will often fill the
plate, especially if you bait snares and nets. (See Traps and snares in Food.) 

CLOSER  TO  HOME
     Beware of houseplants -- some of them are poisonous, especially the diefenbachia
and philodendron -- though orchids are good to eat.       If food is short there will
be none to spare for pets and you CANNOT afford to be squeamish. If the aquarium
water has to be drunk don't waste the fish.  In fact they'll probably be the easiest
to eat even if you don't need the water.  The cat is next in the pot.  Once dressed
it will be hard to distinguish from rabbit.  Gerbils, hamsters, rabbits, budgerigars
and parrots can all be added to the diet and, unless the dog is an exceptionally good
hunter, it should go too.  
PRESERVING  FOOD
     For methods of smoking, salting and making pickles and chutneys see Food
Preservation in Food.   
     When the fridge no longer functions remove the motor, cut a hole in the bottom,
place it on some stones or bricks and with a fire beneath use it as a smoke-house. 

SHELTER
     The first priorities will be a sound roof over your head and a stable structure. 
Clear any debris and ensure that there is nothing which could still collapse or fall
from above and cause injury.  Use slates, tiles and bricks from other buildings to
ensure that at least one building is sound. 

IN COLD WEATHER
     Conserve resources by living in one room, choosing a ground floor room with a
southern aspect (if you live in the Northern Hemisphere).  Block all drafts and avoid
opening the door unnecessarily.  If there is a fire burning, make sure that there is
adequate ventilation to avoid asphyxiation or carbon monoxide poisoning.  Wear warm
clothing to help conserve fuel.  The more people in the room, the higher the
temperature.  Rest and keep physical exertion to a minimum.  
IN VERY WARM WEATHER
     Use upstairs accommodation and spread out.  Open windows on the downstairs
windward side and open all windows on the lee side upstairs.  Leave all the doors
open and a cool breeze will blow through the house.  Rest during the day and do any
necessary work at night. 

MOVING
     If the house proves beyond repair, or other pressures force you to evacuate,
take essential items -- food, blankets, tools, medical supplies, containers for water
and materials suitable for shelter construction -- if they are not likely to be
available.  Use a pram or a shopping trolley as transportation.  Either find an empty
house or building, or prepare to set up camp elsewhere. 

HYGIENE
     Sanitation is very important during the aftermath of any disaster.  Open sewers,
contaminated water and the build up of rubbish all help to cause and spread disease. 
Germs carried by rats, fleas and other insects, rapidly multiply.  All kinds of waste
should be carefully disposed of and all the procedures described (see Hygiene in Camp
craft) should be adapted to the doorstep situation. 

EXCRETA
     Urine is sterile but if large amounts accumulate they smell and attract flies. 
Use the 'desert rose' urinal, of the kind described in Camp craft.  Keep the tube
covered.  If not used directly, pour all collected urine down the tube.
     Build a latrine (again see Camp craft), far enough from the house not to be
smelt but near enough to be handy for 'emergencies' -- there will be many such
emergencies in a survival situation.  A box with a hole cut in the base can be used
as a thunder box.  After use, if there is water available, wash yourself rather than
using toilet paper.  Wash the hands thoroughly afterwards.
     Fit a lid to your thunder box, pile earth around the bottom and then you will
contain the smells and keep out flies.
     Move all muck with a shovel and avoid hand contact.

ANIMALS
     Animals pick up diseases which can be transmitted to humans.  If you handle
animals, make sure you have no breaks in the skin -- or wear gloves.  Infection can
enter through the smallest of cuts.  Cook all meat thoroughly. 

KITCHEN WASTE  
     All biodegradable waste should be stacked in a corner of the garden and
composted to enrich the soil.  Compost heaps are also a great source of worms, which
will add protein to your diet.          However, there should not be much kitchen
waste.  Do NOT peel potatoes,-- much of their food value is in the skin.  The outer
leaves of cabbages which you once discarded, will be edible if you cut them up small. 
     Non-biodegradable waste -- cans and plastics that are not useful in some way --
should be burned, flattened and buried.  This stops them attracting flies. In warm
climates burn ALL waste.  Put all the ashes in a pit. 

*********************************************************************** FOOD 
DISEASES
     Salmonella and shigella are diseases transmitted through the oral- anal route,
by contaminated hands.
     Sores on hands can be a source of entry for staphylococcal food- poisoning with
severe stomach pains, diarrhoea and dehydration.      Clostridium botulinum, is a
frequently fatal bacillus, which can be produced when canning at home if the
temperatures are not high enough - it grows only when oxygen is excluded.  There is
no reliable way of determining whether food is contaminated so TAKE GREAT CARE if you
do your own preserving.  A related bacillus causes tetanus.
***********************************************************************   
COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES
     Living in close-knit groups after a disaster increases the risk of passing on
disease.  Good personal hygiene -- as good as possible -- can reduce the threat. 
Isolation of patients with colds or fever is advisable.
     Seal dressings and discharges in a polythene bag and burn immediately.  Dispose
of all feces and urine in the field latrine -- and regularly boil the container used
for their disposal.  
PERSONAL  HYGIENE
     Wash with sand if there is no water available.  Don't June 10, 2001bite your
nails -- however stressful conditions may be -- or put the fingers to the mouth. 
Don't pick scabs or sores and keep them covered.  Change underclothes regularly and
wash them (but don't use drinking water to do so). 

SOME USEFUL HERBAL PREPARATIONS 
Strawberry roots contain a descaler to clean teeth. 
Delphinium seeds can be crushed to treat head lice. 
Birch bark can be distilled to produce a tar oil which soothes skin complaints. 
Lavender makes a decoction to clean the skin.
See also Natural medicine.


Nuclear War Survival Skills     Ch. 18: Trans-Pacific Fallout     Updated and
Expanded 1987 Edition
Cresson H. Kearny    With Foreword by Dr. Edward Teller        
http://www.oism.org/nwss   
 
Ch. 18: Trans-Pacific Fallout  
POTENTIAL DANGERS TO AMERICANS
     Many strategists believe that if a nuclear war is fought in the next few decades
it probably will not involve nuclear explosions on any of our 50 states. Perhaps the
first nuclear war casualties in the United States will be caused by fallout from an
overseas nuclear war in which our country is not a belligerent. As the number of
nations with nuclear weapons increases - especially in the Middle East - this
generally unrecognized danger to Americans will worsen. Trans-Pacific war fallout,
carried to an America at peace by the prevailing west -to -east winds that blow
around the world, could be several hundred times more dangerous to Americans than
fallout from the worst possible overseas nuclear power reactor accident, and many
times more dangerous than fallout from a very improbable U.S. nuclear power reactor
accident as lethal as the disastrous Chernobyl accident was to Russians. 
     Fig. 1 is a map showing fallout from a single above ground Chinese nuclear test
explosion ("a few hundred kilotons") on December 28, 1966. [nw151.jpg]
     Fig. 1. The Fifth Chinese Nuclear Test was Detonated on Dec. 28, 1966. It
"involved thermonuclear material," and, according to the AEC press release, was a
nuclear test in the atmosphere at their test site near Lop Nor." As indicated above,
by the end of Dec. 31, 1966 the leading edge of its fallout cloud extended as far
east as the dotted line shown running from Arizona to the Great Lakes. 
     ORNL DWG. 73-4611        [nw151.jpg]  

     It produced fallout that by January 1, 1967 resulted in the fallout cloud
covering most of the United States. This one Chinese explosion produced about 15
million curies of iodine- 131 - roughly the same amount as the total release of
iodine- 131 into the atmosphere from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster. (The
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's preliminary estimate is that 10-50 million
curies of iodine- 131 were released during the several days of the Chernobyl
disaster; in contrast, its estimate of the iodine- 131 released during the Three Mile
Island nuclear power plant accident, the worst commercial nuclear power plant
accident in American history, is about 20 curies.)
     Fig. 1 is from an Oak Ridge National Laboratory report, Trans-Pacific Fallout
and Protective Countermeasures (ORNL-4900), written by the author of this book in
1970, but not published until 1973. No classified information was used in any version
of this report, that summarized findings of the unclassified Trans-Pacific Fallout
Seminar funded by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. This seminar was attended by
experts who came from several research organizations and deliberated at Oak Ridge
National Laboratory for two days in March of 1970.
     Later in 1970 a final draft of this report was submitted to Washington for
approval before publication. It was promptly classified. Publication without
censorship was not permitted until after it was declassified in its entirety in 1973.
None of the recommendations in this pioneering report were acted upon, but many of
them are given in this chapter.
     The findings and conclusions of the above mentioned 1970 Oak Ridge National
Laboratory Trans-Pacific Fallout Seminar, summarized in the 1973 report, were
confirmed by a later, more comprehensive study, Assessment and Control of the
Transoceanic Fallout Threat, by H. Lee and W. E. Strope (1974; 117 pages), Report EGU
2981 of Stanford Research Institute.
     Fallout from the approximately 300 kiloton Chinese test explosion shown in Fig.
1 caused milk from cows that fed on pastures near Oak Ridge, Tennessee and elsewhere
to be contaminated with radioiodine, although not with enough to be hazardous to
health. However, this milk contamination (up to 900 picocuries of radioactive iodine
per liter) and the measured dose rates from the gamma rays emitted from fallout
particles deposited in different parts of the United States indicate that
trans-Pacific fallout from even an overseas nuclear war in which "only" two or three
hundred megatons would be exploded could result in tens of thousands of unprepared
Americans suffering thyroid injury.       Unprepared Americans do not have potassium
iodide, the very effective prophylactic medication to prevent thyroid injury from
radioiodine, and few could get it during the several days that it would take
trans-Pacific war fallout to reach the United States. Fortunately, removal of even a
cancerous thyroid rarely is fatal to people blessed with modern medical facilities.
     Only about 7,500 Americans (people living within a few miles of a nuclear power
plant in Tennessee) have been given prophylactic potassium iodide to keep in their
homes. No government organization has advised even Americans living near other
nuclear facilities to buy and keep any kind of prophylactic medicine to protect their
thyroids in case of a peacetime nuclear accident. As expected, official warnings and
advice to the public continue not even to mention preparations that individual
Americans could make to protect themselves and their families against thyroid injury
either from trans-Pacific war fallout deposited on an America at peace, or as a
result of war fallout if our country is subjected to a nuclear attack.
     The worst danger to Americans from trans- Pacific fallout from a large nuclear
war would be the whole-body gamma radiation doses that millions would receive from
fallout particles deposited on the ground, on streets, on and in buildings.
Protective countermeasures would include both sheltering some pregnant women and
small children living in "hot spot" areas of abnormally high rain-out of fallout, and
evacuating others. Unless such unavoidably time- consuming and expensive
countermeasures were taken, several thousand additional Americans might die from
cancer in the following 20 or 30 years. The largest total doses would be received by
people who would live normal unsheltered lives for the first month or so after
fallout deposition, while the dose rates would be highest.
     Several thousand additional cancer deaths would be extremely difficult to
detect, if caused by whole-body gamma radiation from fallout deposited nationwide,
with these scattered deaths occurring over the 20 or 30 years following a
Trans-Pacific war fallout disaster. For during these same decades about 15 million
Americans normally would die from cancers indistinguishable from those caused by
wholebody radiation from war fallout deposited on an America at peace.      An
authoritative risk estimate of getting cancer from low doses of radiation is given in
Report No. 77 (March 15, 1984) of the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurement, "Exposures from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon and Its
Daughters": "The low dose model for total excess cancer mortality is one hundred
cases per million people exposed to one rem uniform whole body radiation. This would
make the overall risk of cancer to the average individual in the population about one
in ten thousand per rem, i.e., if ten thousand persons are exposed to a dose of one
rem (one thousand mrem), one excess fatal cancer would be expected within the
lifetime of the group."
     Many radiation specialists have concluded from studies of the effects of
extremely low doses that the above and similar conservative estimates of excess
cancer deaths overestimate the number of fatalities likely to result from low
radiation doses, such as would be received by millions of Americans from
trans-Pacific war fallout.

TO PROTECT YOURSELF AGAINST TRANS-PACIFIC FALLOUT, START BY REALIZING THAT:

  The dangers from trans-Pacific war fallout have been increased by the continuing
trend toward deployment of more accurate, smaller, more numerous nuclear weapons,
because:

* A large nuclear explosion (half a megaton, or more) injects most of its fallout
particles and gases into the stratosphere, above the tops of clouds and above the
altitudes at which quite prompt removal of contaminants from the atmosphere by
scavenging takes place. Very small particles in the stratosphere do not reach the
ground before they are blown at least several thousand miles. Most of these tiny
particles remain airborne for weeks to years, are very widely dispersed, and are
blown around the world several to many times before being deposited. By then the
radioactivity of iodine-131 (that has a half life of only a little more than 8 days)
is so greatly reduced that it is not nearly as dangerous as is radioactive iodine
deposited much sooner with the fallout from smaller weapons of several hundred
kilotons, or less, explosive power.

* Nuclear explosions smaller than about half a megaton (500 kilotons) inject all or
most of their fallout to lower altitudes - within the troposphere, below the
stratosphere. Most of such fallout is deposited during the radioactive cloud's first
world-circling trip, when even quite rapidly decaying radioiodine still is
dangerously radioactive. This greater danger from smaller nuclear weapons has been
proved by numerous measurements of fallout from many nuclear test explosions, both
foreign and American.

  The dangers from trans-Pacific fallout produced by peacetime nuclear accidents are
not nearly as serious as many Americans have been led to believe. For example, the
Chernobyl nuclear power reactor accident injected as much radioactive iodine into the
atmosphere as would the explosions of several kiloton-range nuclear weapons totaling
perhaps as much as half a megaton in explosive power. But not nearly as much of the
radioactivity caused by this reactor accident reached the United States as would
reach us from several nuclear explosions in the same area, capable of injecting an
equal amount of radioactivity into the atmosphere, because:

* The cloud from the steam explosion that blew off the roof and otherwise damaged the
Chernobyl reactor building, may have risen quite soon to 20,000 feet or more and was
partially blown eastward clear across Asia and the Pacific Ocean. However, the top of
the radioactive smoke cloud over the Chernobyl power plant, that burned for days,
rose only about 3,000 feet above the ground. As a result, much of the airborne
Chernobyl radiation stayed at relatively low altitudes where scavenging (removal) of
smoke and fallout particles and gasses is most effective and rapid, due to
aggregation on cloud droplets, rain-out, and dry deposition. In contrast, almost all
of the fallout particles and radioactive gasses from a nuclear explosion are injected
much higher, to altitudes where scavenging is less effective; there, the generally
prevailing west-to-east winds promptly start transporting very small particles and
radioactive gasses (that originate in the mid- latitudes of the northern hemisphere)
around the world.

* Variable winds for days carried much of the Chernobyl radioactive material
northward to Scandinavian countries, then westward and southward to other European
countries. The resultant wide dispersal of this fallout allowed time for both
scavenging and radioactive decay before a small fraction of these invisible
radioactive clouds rose and also were blown eastward by the prevailing high-altitude
winds. These west winds carried an extremely small fraction of the radioactive
emissions from the burning Chernobyl plant clear across Asia and the Pacific to
America.

  The media habitually exaggerate dangers from nuclear accidents, and exploited the
Chernobyl disaster. For example, when Dr. Robert Gale, the leading bone marrow
transplant specialist who helped save a few Chernobyl victims, first returned from
Russia, an Associated Press article quoted him as saying: "I think we can say there
are at least 50,000 to 100,000 people who have had some dose of radiation which might
be of long-term concern. 

     There will, unfortunately, be additional casualties. We hope the number will be
small." The Rocky Mountain News headlined" 100,000 SOVIETS TO SUFFER FROM RADIATION,
DOCTOR SAYS". Mary McGrory, the syndicated liberal columnist, also misinterpreted Dr.
Gale's risk estimate and misinformed her readers by writing: "He [Dr. Gale] estimated
that there could be 100,000 cases of radiation sickness . Such dramatic news items
give the impression that 100,000 Russians - not just a small fraction of that number
- are likely to suffer sickness or death from the Chernobyl radiation. So additional
typical Americans, reading misinformation of this type and knowing very little about
statistical evaluations of risks based on probabilities, have had their worst nuclear
fears strengthened.
     The public's exaggerated fears of extremely small amounts of radiation also are
worsened by the media's use without explanations of very small units of radiation
measurement, including the picocurie. (The picocurie is used to express the
radioactive contamination of milk, water, etc., and is only one millionth of a
millionth [1/1,000,000,000,000] of a curie.) One episode in which fears of radiation
were thus worsened occurred shortly after the invisible fallout cloud from the
Chernobyl disaster first reached the United States. Some listeners were frightened
when a radio announcer merely stated that milk samples in northwest Oregon showed 118
picocuries per liter of radioactive iodine. Few Americans know that they will not be
advised to stop using fresh milk unless its contamination is 15,000 picocuries or
more per liter - as specified in the Food and Drug Administration's official, very
cautious "Protective Action Guidance", published in the Federal Register of October
22, 1982.
     The maximum measured radioactive contamination of milk in the United States by
iodine-131 from the Chernobyl disaster was in milk produced by cows grazing on
pasture in Washington: 560 picocuries per liter. The much greater potential danger
from trans-Pacific war fallout is brought out by the fact that the approximately
300-kiloton Chinese test explosion of December 28, 1966 resulted in worse iodine- 131
contamination of milk produced by a cow grazing on pasture near Oak Ridge, Tennessee:
900 picocuries per liter. Even asmall overseas nuclear war with only 20 or so
kiloton-range nuclear explosions could cause high enough contamination of milk to
result in the Government's warning Americans to refrain from using fresh milk. Most
Americans would heed this warning and would not drink or otherwise use fresh milk for
weeks. In addition, a small overseas nuclear war possibly would cause a few American
casualties years to decades later.

TWO SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS

1. Trans-Pacific war fallout deposited on an America at peace surely would be a
disaster, but not an overwhelming one. The economic and psychological impact probably
would be more damaging than the losses of health and life.

2. Prudent individuals should make preparations to enable them to use the low cost
protective countermeasures described in this book, especially those in Chapter 13.
Some of the most effective countermeasures, such as getting enough prophylactic
potassium iodide to prevent thyroid damage even if war fallout dangers from
explosions in the United States or overseas were to continue for a couple of months,
cannot be accomplished after even an overseas nuclear war begins.


Nuclear War Survival Skills   by Cresson Kearny   
     Ch. 2: Warnings and Communications 
     TYPES OF WARNINGS
     Warnings are of two types, strategic and tactical.
     Strategic warning is based on observed enemy actions that are believed to be
preparations for an attack. For example, we would have strategic warning if powerful
Russian armies were advancing into western Europe and Soviet leaders were threatening
massive nuclear destruction if the resisting nations should begin to use tactical
nuclear weapons. With strategic warning being given by news broadcasts and newspapers
over a period of days, Americans in areas that are probably targeted would have time
to evacuate. Given a day or more of warning, tens of millions of us could build or
improve shelters and in other ways improve our chances of surviving the feared
attack. By doing so, we also would help decrease the risk of attack.      Tactical
warning of a nuclear attack on the United States 'would be received by our highest
officials a few minutes after missiles or other nuclear weapons had been launched
against our country. Radar, satellites and other sophisticated means of detection
would begin to feed information into our military warning systems almost at once.
This raw information would have to be evaluated, and top- level decisions would have
to be made. Then attack warnings would have to be transmitted down to communities all
over America.      Tactical warning (attack warning) of an out-of- the-blue,
Pearl-Harbor-type attack would be less likely to be received by the average American
than would an attack warning given after recognized strategic warning. However, the
short time (only 15 to 40 minutes) that would elapse between missile launchings and
the resultant first explosions on targets in the United States would make it
difficult for even an excellent warning system to alert the majority of Americans in
time for them to reach the best available nearby shelter.
     Strengths and weaknesses of the present official warning system are summarized
in the following two sections. Then the life-saving warnings that the first nuclear
explosions would give, especially to informed people, are described.
     WARNINGS GIVEN BY THE ATTACK ITSELF
     The great majority of Americans would not be injured by the first explosions of
a nuclear attack. In an all-out attack, the early explosions would give sufficient
warning for most people to reach nearby shelter in time. Fifteen minutes or more
before big intercontinental ballistic missiles (lCBMs) blasted our cities, missile
sites, and other extensive areas, most citizens would see the sky lit up to an
astounding brightness, would hear the thunderous sounds of distant explosions, or
would note the sudden outage of electric power and most communications. These
reliable attack warnings would result from the explosion of submarine-launched
ballistic missiles (SLBMs). These are smaller than many ICBMs. The SLBM warheads
would explode on Strategic Air Command bases and on many civilian airport runways
that are long enough to be used by our big bombers. Some naval bases and
high-priority military command and communication centers would also be targeted.     
The vast majority of Americans do not know how to use these warnings from explosions
to help them save their lives. Neither are they informed about the probable
strategies of an enemy nuclear attack.
     One of the first objectives of a coordinated enemy attack would be to destroy
our long-range bombers, because each surviving U.S. bomber would be one of our most
deadly retaliatory weapons. Once bombers are airborne and well away from their
runways, they arc difficult to destroy.       To destroy our bombers before they
could get away, the first SLBMs would be launched at the same time that ICBMs would
be fired from their silos in Europe and Asia. U.S. surveillance systems would detect
launchings and transmit warnings within a very few minutes. Since some enemy
submarines would be only a few hundred miles from their targets, some SLBMs would
explode on American targets about 15 or 20 minutes before the first lCBMs would hit.
     Some SLBMs would strike civilian airport runways that are at least 7000 Ft long.
This is the minimum length required by B-52s; there were 210 such runways in the U.S.
in 1977. During a crisis, big bombers would be dispersed to many of these long
runways, and enemy SLBMs would be likely to target and hit these runways in an effort
to destroy the maximum number of bombers.      Today most Soviet SLBMs have
warheadsbetween 100 kilotons and one megaton.See Jane's Weapon Systems, 1987-88.
Within 10 to 15 minutes of the beginning of an attack, runways 7000 feet or longer
are likely to be hit by airbursts, to destroy U.S. aircraft and airport facilities.
Later cratering explosions may be used to destroy surviving long runways, or at least
to produce local fallout so heavy that they could not be used for several days for
rearming and refueling our bombers. Therefore, homes within about 4 miles of a runway
at least 7000 ft long are likely to be destroyed before residents receive warning or
have time to reach blast shelters away from their homes. Homes six miles away could
be lightly damaged by such a warhead, with the blast wave from a 1-megaton explosion
arriving about 22 seconds after the warning light. Some windows would be broken 40
miles away. But the large majority of citizens would not be injured by these early
SLBM attacks. These explosions would be life-saving "take cover warnings to most
Americans, if they have been properly informed. 
     Sudden power and communications failures caused by the electromagnetic pulse (EM
P) effects of nuclear explosions also could serve as attack warnings in extensive
areas. An EMP is an intense burst of radio- frequency radiation generated by a
nuclear explosion. The strong, quick-rising surges of electric current induced by EMP
in power transmission lines and long antennas could burn out most unprotected
electrical and electronic equipment. Also likely to be damaged or destroyed would be
unprotected computers. The solid state electrical components of some aircraft and of
some motors of modern autos, trucks, and tractors may be put out of commission. Metal
bodies give some protection, whereas plastic bodies give little.
     The usual means of protecting electrical equipment against surges of current
produced by lightning are generally ineffective against EMP. The protective measures
are known, but to date all too few civilian installations have been protected against
EMP effects. Three or four nuclear weapons skillfully spaced and detonated at high
altitudes over the United States would produce EMP effects that might knock out most
public power, most radio and TV broadcasting stations lacking special protection
against these effects, and most radios connected to long antennas. Nuclear explosions
on or near the ground may produce damaging EMP effects over areas somewhat larger
than those in which such equipment and buildings would be damaged by the blast
effects.
     HOW TO RESPOND TO UNEXPECTED ATTACK WARNINGS
     Although a Pearl-Harbor-type of attack is unlikely, citizens should be prepared
to respond effectively to unexpected warnings.
     These warnings include:
     Extremely bright lights -more light than has been seen before. The dazzling,
bright lights of the first SLBM explosions on targets in many parts of the United
States would be seen by most Americans. One should not look to determine the source
of light and heat, because there is danger of the viewer's eyes being damaged by the
heat and light from a large explosion at distances as far as a hundred miles away, in
clear weather. Look down and away from the probable source, and quickly get behind
anything that will shield you from most of the thermal pulse's burning heat and
intense light. A thermal pulse delivers its heat and light for several seconds- for
more than 11 seconds if it is from a 1 -megaton surface burst and for approximately
44 seconds if from a 20- megaton surface burst.
     If you are at home when you see the amazingly bright light, run out of rooms
with windows. Hurry to a windowless hallway or down into the basement. If you have a
shelter close to your house, but separate from it, do not leave the best cover in
your home to run outdoors to reach the shelter; wait until about two minutes after
first seeing the light.
     If outdoors when you see the bright light, get behind the best available cover.
     It would be impossible to estimate the distance to an explosion from its light
or appearance, so you should stay under cover for about two minutes. A blast wave
initially travels much faster than the normal speed of sound (about 1 mile in 5
seconds). But by the time its overpressure has decreased to 1 pound per square inch
(psi), a blast wave and its thunderous sound have slowed down and are moving only
about 3% faster than the normal speed of sound. 
     If no blast or sound reaches you in two minutes, you would know that the
explosion was over 25 miles away and you would not be hurt by blast effects, unless
cut by shattered window glass. After two minutes you can safely leave the best cover
in your home and get a radio. Turn the dial to the stations to which you normally
listen and try to find information. Meanwhile, quickly make preparations to go to the
best shelter you and your family can reach within IS minutes the probable time
interval before the first lCBMs start to explode.
     At no time after an attack begins should you look out of a window or stay near a
window. Under certain atmospheric conditions, window's can be shattered by a
multi-megaton explosion a hundred miles away.      The sound of explosions. The
thunderous booms of the initial SLBM explosions would be heard over almost all parts
of the United States. Persons one hundred miles away from a nuclear explosion may
receive their first warning by hearing it about 7-1/2 minutes later. Most would have
time to reach nearby shelter before the lCBMs begin to explode.
     Loss of electric power and communications. If the lights go out and you find
that many radio and TV stations are suddenly off the air, continue to dial if you
have a battery-powered radio, and try to find a station that is still broadcasting.
     HOW TO RESPOND TO ATTACK WARNINGS DURING A WORSENING CRISIS      If an attack
takes place during a worsening crisis, the effectiveness of warnings would be
greater. Even if our government did not order an evacuation of high-risk areas,
millions of Americans would already have moved to safer areas if they had learned
that the enemy's urban civilians were evacuating or that tactical nuclear weapons
were being employed overseas. Many prudent citizens would sleep inside the best
available shelter and stay in or near shelter most of their waking hours. Many people
would have made or improved family car small-group shelters and would have supplied
them with most essentials. The official warning systems would have been fully alerted
and improved.
     During such a tense crisis period, neighbors or people sheltered near each other
should have someone listen to radio stations at all times of the day and night. If
the situation worsened or an attack warning were broadcast, the listener could alert
the others.
     One disadvantage of waiting to build expedient shelters until there isa crisis
is that many of the builders are likely to be outdoors improving their shelters when
the first SLBMs are launched. The SLBM warheads may arrive so soon that the civilian
warning systems cannot respond in time. To reduce the risk of being burned, persons
working outdoors when expecting an attack should wear shirts, hats, and gloves. They
should jump into a shelter or behind a nearby shielding object at the first warning,
which may be the sudden cut-off of some radio broadcasts.
     REMAINING INSIDE SHELTER
     Curiosity and ignorance probably will cause many people to come out of shelters
a few hours after an attack warning, if no blast or obvious fallout has endangered
their area. This is dangerous, because several hours after almost all missiles have
been launched the first enemy bombers may strike. Cities and other targets that have
been spared because missiles malfunctioned or missed are likely to be destroyed by
nuclear bombs dropped during the first several days after the first attack.
     Most people should stay inside their shelters for at least two or three days,
even if they are in a locality far from a probable target and even if fallout meter
readings prove there is no dangerous fallout. Exceptions would include some of the
people who would need to improve shelters or move to better shelters. Such persons
could do so at relatively small risk during the interval between the ICBM explosions
and the arrival of enemy bombers and; or the start of fallout deposition a few hours,
later.
     Fallout would cover most of the United States within 12 hours after a massive
attack. People could rarely depend on information received from distant radio
stations regarding changing fallout dangers and advising when and for how long they
could go outside their shelters. Weather conditions such as wind speed would cause
fallout dangers to vary with distance. If not forced by thirst or hunger to leave
shelter, they should depend on their own fallout meter readings or on radiation
measurements made by neighbors or local civil defense workers.     Copyright 1999
Nuclear War Survival Skills 




HOW  TO  MAKE  A  FALLOUT  PILL. 

http://www.ki4u.com/survive/doomsday.htm

You Will Survive Doomsday
By Bruce Beach
Copyright Information
     This document is copyrighted. You are welcome to reproduce it, however, for FREE
distribution in whatever quantity you desire and by whatever means you desire so long
as you reproduce the entire document. Extensive quotes are also welcomed so long as
credit is properly given.  Our purpose in publishing this document is to ameliorate
the effects of a nuclear holocaust for as many people as we can reach, and to locate
as many people as we can who are willing and able to join our nuclear survival group. 

MYTH #11: There is no such thing as a fallout pill.
     There is a simple pill that would have prevented the difficulty. It is supplied
in every nuclear emergency kit in Russia and available in Denmark and Sweden.
Unfortunately it is not sold in North America.       Fortunately, however, the pill
is quite simple to make. Ahead of time, obtain a quantity of potassium iodide from
your local drug store. Five dollars worth should be lots. When needed, take a regular
glass and fill it a fourth or less full of water, and then slowly start pouring in
the potassium iodide while thoroughly stirring the water.       Don't worry about how
much you pour in. You cannot pour in too much. After a while you will notice that the
chemical no longer dissolves in the water. It just lies there on the bottom. This
means that the water is saturated. You can now stop pouring in the chemical. More
will not help or hurt. 
     Next take an eyedropper, or a soaked piece of paper if you do not have an
eyedropper, and drop four drops onto a little piece of bread for an adult. Or two
drops for a child. If you get several times that amount it is not going to harm you
(although in much larger amounts it is a poison). 
     Now take some butter or margarine and make a little ball out of the bread and
pop it down. Tastes awful. Ugh. Take once a day for 100 days after the last bomb
falls. This is good stuff and you should have it around for reasons other than
defense in case of a nuclear war.  If you live anywhere within in a couple of hundred
miles of a nuclear generating plant you might suddenly find yourself needing the
stuff. The US department of Health rushed a supply of pills to Three Mile Island and
they have a standard brochure all printed ready for distribution in case it or some
similar site vents. 
     The department of defense also keeps a supply near the old Titan sites that are
deteriorating and breaking down. [Author's update note: Once again those sites have
been now decommissioned and no longer present a problem, but much greater concerns
now arise from Terrorist Threat, and the U.S. Government is now stockpiling in many
cities not only these pills but others for Bateriological and Chemical Threats].
Canadians have nothing. I'll take that back. They do have lots of nuclear plants and
the distinct possibility of bombs exploding over their heads and on their soil. 
     The reason why the potassium iodide works is that the thyroid will absorb only
so much iodine. After that, any iodine taken into the body is passed off by the
kidneys. Since the body already has all the good stuff it wants it passes out the bad
stuff. This is what we call thyroid blocking. 
     Do not try to use the tincture of iodine that you put onto cuts. Taken
internally it will kill you. And you cannot eat enough iodized salt to do you any
good. You would get salt poisoning long before you got sufficient iodine to do the
job.  


July 4th, 2002.  I keep some books in the front of my truck, to read over in odd
times.  Looking in this one I found a good discussion about why we bought Iodine
tablets, or take Modifilan tablets, that have iodine in them.


Nuclear War Survival Skills   by Cresson Kearny   
 
Ch. 13: Surviving Without Doctors 

from book page 111 on --------

PREVENTION OF THYROID DAMAGE FROM RADIOACTIVE IODINES

There is no medicine that will effectively prevent nuclear radiations from damaging
the human body cells that they strike. However, a salt of the elements potassium and
iodine, taken orally even in very small quantities 1/2 hour to 1 day before
radioactive iodines are swallowed or inhaled, prevents about 99% of the damage to the
thyroid gland that otherwise would result. The thyroid gland readily absorbs both
non-radioactive and radioactive iodine, and normally it retains much of this element
in either or both forms. When ordinary,
non-radioactive iodine is made available in the blood for absorption by the thyroid
gland before any radioactive iodine is made available, the gland will absorb and
retain so much that it becomes saturated with non-radioactive iodine. When saturated,
the thyroid can absorb only about l% as much additional iodine, including radioactive
forms that later may become available in the blood: then it is said to be blocked.
(Excess iodine in the blood is rapidly eliminated by the action of the kidneys.)

An excess of ordinary iodine retained in the thyroid gland is harmless, but quite
small amounts of radioactive iodine retained in the thyroid eventually will give such
a large radiation dose to thyroid cells that abnormalities are likely to result.
These would include loss of thyroid function, nodules in the thyroid, or thyroid
cancer. Sixty-four Marshall Islanders on Rongelap Atoll were accidentally exposed to
radioactive fallout produced by a large H-bomb test explosion on Bikini Atoll, about
100 miles away. Twenty-two of them developed thyroid abnormalities beginning nine
years later.6 In the two days before they were taken out of the fallout area, these
completely uninformed natives, living essentially outdoors, had received estimated
whole- body gamma-ray doses of about 175 R from the fallout all around them. They
absorbed most of the radioactive iodine retained by their thyroid glands as a result
of eating and drinking fallout-contaminated food and water during their two days of
exposure. (Because of unusual environmental conditions at the time of fallout
deposition, some of the retained radioactive iodine may have come from the air they
breathed.)

An extremely small and inexpensive daily dose of the preferred non-radioactive
potassium salt, potassium iodide (KI), if taken 1/2 hour to 1 day before exposure to
radioactive iodine, will reduce later absorption of radioactive iodine by the thyroid
to only about 1% of what the absorption would be without this preventive measure.
Extensive experimentation and study have led to the Federal Drug Administration's
approval of 130-milligram (130- mg) tablets for this preventive (prophylactic) use
only.36,37 A 130-mg dose provides the same daily amount of iodine as does each tablet
that English authorities for years have placed in the hands of the police near
nuclear power plants, for distribution to the surrounding population in the very
unlikely event of a major nuclear accident. It is quite likely that a similar-sized
dose is in the Russian "individual, standard first-aid packet." According to a
comprehensive Soviet 1969 civil defense handbook,38 this first-aid packet contains
"anti-radiation tablets and anti-vomiting tablets (potassium iodide and etaperain)."

 

  Prophylactic use of potassium iodide in peacetime nuclear accidents. 

When the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor accident was worsening and it appeared
that the reactor's containment structure might rupture and release dangerous amounts
of radioactive iodines and other radioactive material into the atmosphere, the
Government rushed preparation of small bottles of a saturated solution of potassium
iodide. The reactor's containment structure did not rupture. 

Book Page: 112

The 237,013 bottles of saturated KI solution that were delivered to Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania-mostly too late to have been effective if the Three Mile Island accident
had become an uncontained meltdown -were stored in secret in a warehouse, and were
never used.

Since this famous 1979 accident, that injured no one, the Governors of the 50 states
have been given the responsibility for protecting Americans against radioiodines by
providing prophylactic potassium iodide. By May of 1986, only in Tennessee have
Americans, other than some specialists, been given potassium iodide tablets; around
one nuclear reactor some 7,500 residents have been given the officially approved KI
tablets, to assure their having this protection if a nuclear accident occurs.

In April of 1982 the Bureau of Radiological Health and Bureau of Drugs, Food and Drug
Administration, Department of Health and Human Services released "FINAL
RECOMMENDATIONS, Potassium Iodide As A Thyroid- Blocking Agent In A Radiation
Emergency: Recommendations On Use". These lengthy recommendations are summarized in
the FDA's "mandated patient product insert". (See a complete copy in the following
section.) This insert is packed with every bottle of non-prescription KI tablets
sold. However, the lengthy FDA recommendations contain many facts not mentioned in
this required insert, including the following: "Based on the FDA adverse reaction
reports and an estimated 48 x 106 [48 million] 300-mg doses of potassium iodide
administered each year [in the United States], the NCRP [National Council on
Radiation Protection and Measurements] estimated an adverse reaction rate of from 1
in a million to 1 in 10 million doses." (Note that this extremely low adverse
reaction rate is for doses over twice as large as the 130-mg prophylactic dose.) 

FDA PATIENT INFORMATION USE OF 130-MG SCORED TABLETS OF POTASSIUM IODIDE FOR THYROID
BLOCKING

(Potassium Iodide Tablets, U.S.P.)

(Pronounced poe-TASS-e-um EYE-oh-dyed)

(Abbreviated KI)

TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE ONLY WHEN PUBLIC HEALTH OFFICIALS TELL YOU. IN A RADIATION
EMERGENCY, RADIOACTIVE IODINE COULD BE RELEASED INTO THE AIR. POTASSIUM IODIDE (A
FORM OF IODINE) CAN HELP PROTECT YOU. 
IF YOU ARE TOLD TO TAKE THIS MEDICINE, TAKE IT ONE TIME EVERY 24 HOURS. DO NOT TAKE
IT MORE OFTEN. MORE WILL NOT HELP YOU AND MAY INCREASE THE RISK OF SIDE EFFECTS. DO
NOT TAKE THIS DRUG IF YOU KNOW YOU ARE ALLERGIC TO IODINE (SEE SIDE EFFECTS BELOW).

INDICATIONS

THYROID BLOCKING IN A RADIATION EMERGENCY ONLY

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

Use only as directed by State or local public health authorities in the event of a
radiation emergency.

DOSE

ADULTS AND CHILDREN ONE YEAR OF AGE OR

OLDER: One (1) tablet once a day. Crush for small children. 
BABIES UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE: One-half (1/2) tablet once a day. Crush first.

DOSAGE: Take for 10 days unless directed otherwise by State or local public health
authorities.

Store at controlled room temperature between 150 and 300C (59 degrees to 86 degrees
F). Keep bottle tightly closed and protect from light. 
WARNING

POTASSIUM IODIDE SHOULD NOT BE USED BY PEOPLE ALLERGIC TO IODIDE. Keep out of the
reach of children. In case of overdose or allergic reaction, contact a physician or
public health authority.

DESCRIPTION

Each   Tablet contains 130 mg. of potassium iodide.

HOW POTASSIUM IODIDE WORKS

Certain forms of iodine help your thyroid gland work right. Most people get the
iodine they need from foods like iodized salt or fish. The thyroid can "store" or
hold only a certain amount of iodine. 
In a radiation emergency, radioactive iodine may be released in the air. This
material may be breathed or swallowed. It may enter the thyroid gland and damage it.
The damage would probably not show itself for years. Children are most likely to have
thyroid damage. 
If you take potassium iodide, it will fill up your thyroid gland. This reduces the
chance that harmful radioactive iodine will enter the thyroid gland.

WHO SHOULD NOT TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE 

The only people who should not take potassium iodide are people who know they are
allergic to iodide. You may take potassium iodide even if you are taking medicines
for a thyroid problem (for example, a thyroid hormone or anti-thyroid drug). Pregnant
and nursing women and babies and children may also take this drug.

HOW AND WHEN TO TAKE POTASSIUM IODIDE 

Potassium iodide should be taken as soon as possible after public health officials
tell you. You should take one dose every 24 hours. More will not help you because the
thyroid can "hold" only limited amounts of iodine. Larger doses will increase the
risk of side effects. You will probably be told not to take the drug for more than 10
days. 

Book Page: 113

SIDE EFFECTS

Usually, side effects of potassium iodide happen when people take higher doses for a
long time. You should be careful not to take more than the recommended dose or take
it for longer than you are told. Side effects are unlikely because of the low dose
and the short time you will be taking the drug.

Possible side effects include skin rashes, swelling of the salivary glands, and
"iodism" (metallic taste, burning mouth and throat, sore teeth and gums, symptoms of
a head cold, and sometimes stomach upset and diarrhea).

A few people have an allergic reaction with more serious symptoms. These could be
fever and joint pains, or swelling of parts of the face and body and at times severe
shortness of breath requiring immediate medical attention.

Taking iodide may rarely cause overactivity of the thyroid gland, underactivity of
the thyroid gland, or enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter).

WHAT TO DO IF SIDE EFFECTS OCCUR

If the side effects are severe or if you have an allergic reaction, stop taking
potassium iodide. Then, if possible, call a doctor or public health authority for
instructions.

HOW SUPPLIED

Tablets (Potassium Iodide Tablets, U.S.P.): bottles of [number of tablets in a
bottle] tablets

( ). Each white, round, scored tablet contains 130 mg. potassium iodide.

 

Note that this official FDA required insert given above prudently stresses the name,
the pronunciation, and the chemical formula (KI) of these Government-approved 130-mg
potassium iodide tablets. Perhaps this emphasized information will keep some alarmed
Americans (misinformed in a future crisis by the media that typically stated during
the Chernobyl nuclear accident that "iodine tablets" were being given to people
endangered by radioactive iodine from the burning reactor) from getting and taking
iodine tablets, widely sold for water purification, or tincture of iodine.

Strangely, neither in official information available to the general public on the
prophylactic use of KI nor in the above-mentioned FDA "Final Recommendations" is any
mention made of the much greater need for KI in a nuclear war-even for Americans
during an overseas nuclear war in which the United States would not be a belligerent. 
Also note that this official insert contains no instructions for giving a crushed KI
tablet to infants and small children. Nor is there any mention of the fact that the
KI under the tablet's coating is a more painful-tasting drug than any that most
people ever have taken. This omitted information is given in the next to last section
of this chapter.

  Protection against radioactive iodine in fallout from a nuclear war fought outside
the United States.


Most strategists believe that a nuclear war fought by nations other than the United
States is a more likely catastrophe than a nuclear attack on America. Several of the
Soviet and Chinese nuclear test explosions have resulted in very light fallout
deposition and some contamination of milk by radioactive iodine in many of the 50
states. However, serious contamination of milk, fruits, and vegetables could result
if war fallout from many overseas nuclear explosions were carried to an America at
peace. These potential dangers and effective countermeasures are included in Chapter
18, Trans-Pacific Fallout. 
If a nuclear war were to be fought in northern parts of Asia, or in Europe, or in the
Middle East, a very small fraction of the fallout would come to earth on parts or all
of the United States.40 This fallout would not result in an overwhelming catastrophe
to Americans, although the long-term health hazards would be serious by peacetime
standards and the economic losses would be great.40 The dangers from radioactive
iodine in milk produced by cows that ate fallout contaminated feeds or drank fallout
contaminated water would be minimized if Americans did not consume dairy products for
several weeks after the arrival of war fallout. Safe milk and other baby foods would
be the only essential foods that soon would be in very short supply. The parents of
babies and young children who had stored potassium iodide would be especially
thankful they had made this very inexpensive preparation, that can give 99% effective
protection to the thyroid. All members of families with a supply of potassium iodide
could safely eat a normal diet long before those without it could do so.

The most dangerous type of radioactive iodine decays rapidly. At the end of each 8
day period it gives off only half as much radiation as at the start of that period.
So at the end of 80 days it emits only about 111000 as much radiation per hour as at
the beginning of these 80 days. Because of this rapid decay, a 100-day supply of
potassium iodide should be sufficient if a nuclear war, either overseas or within the
United States, were to last no more than a week or two. 
Book Page: 114
--------------------------------------------------

The probability of most Americans being supplied with prophylactic potassium iodide
during a major nuclear disaster appears low. Under present regulations the decision
concerning whether to stockpile and dispense potassium iodide tablets rests solely
with each state's governor.41

  Need for thyroid protection after a nuclear attack on the United States.


After a nuclear attack, very few of the survivors would be able to obtain potassium
iodide or to get advice about when to start taking it or stop taking it. In areas of
heavy fallout, some survivors without potassium iodide would receive radiation doses
large enough to destroy thyroid function before modern medical treatments would again
become available. Even those injuries to the thyroid that result in its complete
failure to function cause few deaths in normal times, but under post-attack
conditions thyroid damage would be much more hazardous.

  Ways to obtain potassium iodide for prophylactic use.

* By prescription.

With a prescription from a doctor, a U.S.P. saturated solution of potassium iodide
can be bought at many pharmacies today. (In a crisis, the present local supplies
would be entirely inadequate.) The saturated solution contains a very small amount of
a compound that prevents it from deteriorating significantly for a few years. It is
best stored in a dark glass bottle with a solid, non-metallic cap that screws on
liquid-tight. A separate medicine dropper should be kept in the same place. An
authoritative publication36 of the National Committee on Radiation Protection and
Measurements states: "Supplies of potassium iodide can be stored in a variety of
places, including homes,..."

In 1990 the price of a 2-ounce bottle of U.S.P. saturated solution of potassium
iodide, which is sold by prescription only, ranges from about $7.00 to $11.00 in
Colorado. A 2-ounce bottle contains about 500 drops. Four drops provide the daily
dose of 130 mg for adults and for children older than one year. For babies less than
one year old, the daily dose of a saturated solution is two drops (65 mg). Thus
approximately 99% effective protection against the subsequent uptake of radioactive
iodine by the thyroid can be gotten by taking saturated potassium iodide solution. If
bought by prescription, today the recommended daily dose costs 6 to 9 cents.

* Without prescription.


In 1990 the leading company selling 130-mg potassium iodide tablets without
prescription and by mail order in the United States is Inc., P.O. Box 861, Cooper
Station, New York, N.Y. 10276. Two bottles, each containing fourteen 130-mg potassium
iodide tablets, cost $10.00. Thus the cost per 24-hour dose is 36 cents. To the best
of my knowledge, the company in the U.S. that in July of 1990 is selling 130-mg KI
tablets without prescription at the lowest price is Preparedness Products, 3855 South
500 West, Bldg. G, Salt Lake City, Utah 84115. This company sells 14 tablets, in a
brown, screw-cap glass bottle, for $3.50, postpaid, including shipping charges. For
three or more bottles, the price is $2.50 per bottle.

After the disastrous Russian nuclear power reactor accident at Chernobyl in May of
1986, pharmacies in Sweden soon sold all of their 130- mg potassium iodide tablets
and Poland limited its inadequate supplies of prophylactic iodide salts to the
protection of children. In California, pharmacists reported abnormally large sales of
iodine tablets, and also of tincture of iodine- apparently due to the buyers' having
been misinformed by the media's reports that Europeans were taking "iodine" for
protection.

Individuals can buy chemical reagent grade potassium iodide, that is purer than the
pharmaceutical grade, from some chemical supply firms. No prescription or other
authorization is necessary. In 1990 the least expensive source of which I am aware is
NASCO, 901 Jamesville Avenue, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin 53538. The price for 100 grams
(100,000 mg) in 1990 is $10.50, plus $2.00 to $4.00 for shipping costs. Thus the cost
in 1990 for a 130-mg daily dose is less than 2 cents. NASCO sells 500 grams (500,000
mg- about one pound) for $35.50, plus $2.00 to $4.00 for shipping-making the cost per
standard daily dose only one cent.

For years of storage, crystalline or granular potassium iodide is better than a
saturated solution. Dry potassium iodide should be stored in a dark bottle with a
gasketed, non-metallic cap that screws on tightly. Two-fluid-ounce bottles, filled
with dry potassium iodide as described below, are good sizes for a family. Separate
medicine droppers should be kept with stored bottles.

Thus at low cost you can buy and store enough potassium iodide for your family and
large numbers of your friends and neighbors- as I did years ago.

  Practical expedient ways to prepare and take daily prophylactic doses of a
saturated solution of potassium iodide.


To prepare a saturated solution of potassium iodide, fill a bottle about 60% full of
crystalline or granular potassium iodide. (A 2-fluid-ounce bottle, made of dark glass
and having a solid, non-metallic, screwcap top, is a good size for a family.

Book Page: 115

About 2 ounces of crystalline or granular potassium iodide is needed to fill a
2-fluid-ounce bottle about 60% full.) Next, pour safe, room-temperature water into
the bottle until it is about 90% full. Then close the bottle tightly and shake it
vigorously for at least 2 minutes. Some of the solid potassium iodide should remain
permanently undissolved at the bottom of the bottle; this is proof that the solution
is saturated.

Experiments with a variety of ordinary household medicine droppers determined that 1
drop of a saturated solution of potassium iodide contains from 28 to 36 mg of
potassium iodide. The recommended expedient daily doses of a saturated solution
(approximately 130 mg for adults and children older than one year, and 65 mg for
babies younger than one year) are as follows:

* For adults and children older than one year, 4 drops of a saturated solution of
potassium iodide each 24 hours.

* For babies younger than one year, 2 drops of a saturated solution of potassium
iodide each 24 hours.

Potassium iodide has a painfully bad taste, so bad that a single crystal or 1 drop of
the saturated solution in a small child's mouth would make him cry. (A small child
would be screaming in pain before he could eat enough granular or crystalline KI to
make him sick. Some KI tablets are coated and tasteless.) Since many persons will not
take a bad tasting medication, especially if no short-term health hazards are likely
to result from not taking it, the following two methods of taking a saturated
solution are recommended:

* Put 4 drops of the solution into a glass of milk or other beverage, stir, and drink
quickly. Then drink some of the beverage with nothing added. If only water is
available, use it in the same manner. 
* If bread is available, place 4 drops of the solution on a small piece of it; dampen
and mold it into a firm ball the size of a large pea, about 3A inch in diameter.
There is almost no taste if this "pill" is swallowed quickly with water. (If the pill
is coated with margarine, there is no taste.)

As stated before, 4 drops of the saturated solution provide a dose approximately
equal to 130 mg of potassium iodide.

  Preparing potassium iodide tablets to give to infants and small children.


The official FDA instructions for using KI tablets state that one half of a 130-mg
tablet, "first crushed", should be given every 24 hours to "babies under one year of
age", and that a whole tablet should be crushed "for small children."

Putting even a small fraction of a crushed or pulverized potassium iodide tablet on
one's tongue is a startling experience, with a burning sensation. A slightly burnt
sensation continues for hours. Therefore, a mother is advised to make this experiment
where her children cannot see her.

To eliminate the painfully bad taste of a crushed or pulverized KI tablet, first
pulverize it thoroughly. Next stir it for a minute into at least 2 ounces of milk,
orange juice, or cold drink, to make sure that the KI (a salt) is completely
dissolved. Then the taste is not objectionable. If only water is available, stir the
pulverized tablet into more than 2 ounces of water.

KI is a corrosive salt, more injurious than aspirin to tissue with which it is in
direct contact. Some doctors advise taking KI tablets after meals, except when so
doing would delay taking the initial dose during an emergency. All recognize that
taking a dilute solution of KI is easier on the stomach than taking the same dose in
tablet form. This may be a consequential consideration when taking KI for weeks
during a prolonged nuclear war emergency.

  WARNINGS

* Elemental (free) iodine is poisonous, except in the very small amounts in water
disinfected with iodine tablets or a few drops of tincture of iodine. Furthermore,
elemental iodine supplied by iodine tablets and released by tincture of iodine
dropped into water is not effective as a blocking agent to prevent thyroid damage. If
you do not have any potassium iodide, DO NOT TAKE IODINE TABLETS OR TINCTURE OF
IODINE.

* DO NOT MAKE A FUTILE, HARMFUL ATTEMPT TO EAT ENOUGH IODIZED SALT TO RESULT IN
THYROID BLOCKING. Iodized salt contains potassium iodide, but in such a low
concentration that it is impossible to eat enough iodized salt to be helpful as a
blocking agent.

OTHER WAYS TO PREVENT THYROID DAMAGE

Besides the prophylactic use of potassium iodide, the following are ways to prevent
or reduce thyroid damage under peacetime or wartime conditions:

Book Page: 116

* Do not drink or otherwise use fresh milk produced by cows that have consumed feed
or water consequentially contaminated with fall- out or other radioactive material
resulting from a peacetime accident or from nuclear explosions in a war.

* As a general rule, do not eat fresh vegetables until advised it is safe to do so.
If under wartime conditions no official advice is obtainable, avoid eating fresh
leafy vegetables that were growing or exposed at the time of fallout deposition;
thoroughly wash all vegetables and fruits.

* If a dangerously radioactive air mass is being blown toward your area and is
relatively small (as from some possible nuclear power facility accidents), and if
there is time, an ordered evacuation of your area may make it unnecessary even to
take potassium iodide. 
* For protection against inhaled radioactive iodine, the FDA Final Recommendations
(which are mentioned in the preceding section) state that the following measures
"should be considered": "..sheltering [merely staying indoors can significantly
reduce inhaled doses], evacuation, respiratory protection, and/or the use of stable
iodide." 
Research has been carried out in an effort to develop a thyroid protection procedure
based on the ordinary iodine solutions which are used as disinfectants. Since iodine
solutions such as tincture of iodine and povidone-iodine are dangerous poisons if
taken orally, these experiments have utilized absorption through the skin after
topical application on bare skin.

All reported experimental topical applications on human skin have given less thyroid
protection than does proper oral administration of potassium iodide. Moreover,
undesirable side effects of skin application can be serious. For these reasons
researchers to date have not recommended a procedure for the use of ordinary iodine
solutions for thyroid protection.

Potassium iodide, when obtained in the crystalline reagent form and used as
recommended above on pages 114 and 115, is safe, inexpensive, and easy to administer.
Prudent individuals should obtain and keep ready for use an adequate supply of
potassium iodide well in advance of a crisis.

Book Page: 117

Copyright 1999 Nuclear War Survival Skills 




What you don't hear about Nuclear War.
Excerpted from: Nuclear War Survival Skills, Cresson H. Kearny       ISBN
0-942487-01-X  Book pages 12-20; EMPHASIS MINE

-----------------------------------------------------------------------      An
all-out nuclear war between Russia and the United States would be the worst
catastrophe in history, a tragedy so huge it is difficult to comprehend.  Even so, it
would be far from the end of human life on earth.  

THE DANGERS FROM NUCLEAR WEAPONS HAVE BEEN DISTORTED AND EXAGGERATED,  
for varied reasons.  These exaggerations have become demoralizing myths, believed by
millions of Americans. ................ 
----------------------------------------------------------------------- While working
with hundreds of Americans building expedient shelters and life-support equipment, I
have found that 

MANY PEOPLE AT FIRST SEE NO SENSE IN TALKING ABOUT DETAILS OF SURVIVAL SKILLS.  

THOSE WHO HOLD EXAGGERATED BELIEFS ABOUT THE DANGERS FROM NUCLEAR WEAPONS MUST FIRST
BE CONVINCED THAT NUCLEAR WAR WOULD NOT INEVITABLY BE THE END OF THEM AND EVERYTHING
WORTHWHILE.  

Only after they have begun to question the truth of these myths do they become
interested, under normal peacetime conditions, in acquiring nuclear war survival
skills.
.........................

----------------------------------------------------------------------- Fortunately
for all living things, the danger from fallout radiation lessens with time. The
radioactive decay, as this lessening is called, is rapid at first, then gets slower
and slower.  The dose rate (the amount of radiation received per hour) decreases
accordingly. ................

----------------------------------------------------------------------- Within two
weeks after an attack the occupants of most shelters could safely stop using them, or
could work outside the shelters for an increasing number of hours each day.
...............

----------------------------------------------------------------------- As long as
Soviet leaders are rational they will continue to give first priority to knocking out
our weapons and other military assets that can damage Russia and kill Russians. 

TO EXPLODE ENOUGH NUCLEAR WEAPONS OF ANY SIZE TO COMPLETELY DESTROY AMERICAN CITIES
WOULD BE AN IRRATIONAL WASTE OF WARHEADS.  
The Soviets can make much better use of most of the warheads that would be required
to completely destroy American cities;


THE MAJORITY OF THOSE WARHEADS PROBABLY ALREADY ARE TARGETED TO KNOCK OUT OUR
RETALIATORY MISSILES BY BEING SURFACE BURST OR NEAR-SURFACE BURST ON THEIR HARDENED
SILOS, LOCATED FAR FROM MOST CITIES AND DENSELY POPULATED AREAS. ..............

----------------------------------------------------------------------- STATEMENTS
THAT THE U.S. AND THE SOVIET UNION HAVE THE POWER TO KILL THE WORLD'S POPULATION
SEVERAL TIMES OVER ARE BASED ON MISLEADING CALCULATIONS. 

One such calculation is to multiply the deaths produced per kiloton exploded over
Hiroshima or Nagasaki by an estimate of the number of kilotons in either side's
arsenal. (A kiloton explosion is one that produces the same amount of energy as does
1000 tons of TNT.) 
THE UNSTATED ASSUMPTION IS THAT SOMEHOW THE WORLD'S POPULATION COULD BE GATHERED INTO
CIRCULAR CROWDS, EACH A FEW MILES IN DIAMETER WITH A POPULATION DENSITY EQUAL TO
DOWNTOWN HIROSHIMA OR NAGASAKI, AND THEN A SMALL (HIROSHIMA-SIZED) WEAPON WOULD BE
EXPLODED OVER THE CENTER OF EACH CROWD. 

Other misleading calculations are based on exaggerations of the dangers from
long-lasting radiation and other harmful effects of a nuclear war. .........

----------------------------------------------------------------------- 
UNSURVIVABLE "NUCLEAR WINTER" IS A DISCREDITED THEORY 

that, since its conception in 1982, has been used to frighten additional millions
into believing that trying to survive a nuclear war is a waste of effort and
resources, and that only by ridding the world of almost all nuclear weapons do we
have a chance of surviving. 
Non-propagandizing scientists recently have calculated that the climatic and other
environmental effects of even an all-out nuclear war would be much less severe than
the catastrophic effects repeatedly publicized by popular astronomer Carl Sagan and
his fellow activist scientists, and by all the involved Soviet scientists.
Conclusions reached from these recent, realistic calculations are summarized in an
article, "Nuclear Winter Reappraised", featured in the 1986 summer issue of Foreign
Affairs, the prestigious quarterly of the Council on Foreign Relations. The authors,
Starley L. Thompson and Stephen H. Schneider, are atmospheric scientists with the
National Center for Atmospheric Research.

THEY SHOWED "THAT ON SCIENTIFIC GROUNDS THE GLOBAL APOCALYPTIC CONCLUSIONS OF THE
INITIAL NUCLEAR WINTER HYPOTHESIS CAN NOW BE RELEGATED TO A VANISHING LOW LEVEL OF
PROBABILITY." 

Their models indicate that in July (when the greatest temperature reductions would
result) the average temperature in the United States would be reduced for a few days
from about 70 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 50 degrees.



These facts and general statements line up with the leading I have from the LORD. 
Paul




Nuclear War, NO Experts On, (Reality Check)
(Though Canadian, his writing still applies to us.  Need to get into contact with
this guy. - Paul)

You Will Survive Doomsday;  By Bruce Beach
http://www.ki4u.com/survive/doomsday.htm


MYTH #21: YOU WILL RECEIVE ADEQUATE WARNING FROM YOUR GOVERNMENT. 
     The government at first proposed the individual family shelter plan. Then it
abandoned it. Next it proposed the community shelter plan. Then it abandoned it. Then
it proposed the relocation plan. Then it abandoned it. Presently it has no plan.
Don't you feel abandoned?       The government has millions to spend for destruction
but not a penny for defense. The EMO (Emergency Measures Organization) has been
completely shut down. The Ontario government was allocated three berths in the
Radiological Defense Officers course (for the summer of 1982) given by the Canadian
Emergency Measures College at the Emergency Planning Canada Federal Study Center in
Arnprior, Ontario, but it didn't feel it could afford to send anyone even after our
group offered to pay expenses for three people. We appealed all the way up to the
Solicitor General's office. 
     Admittedly, I am authorized to teach the course but during the last course that
I taught at one of the community colleges (free gratis) I could not even get any
resource personnel to come from Camp Borden, who are responsible for administering
the examinations. I feel abandoned. A radiological detection kit that I used to be
able to get for sixty dollars, in the US, now costs in Canada, with import duties
(they really want you to have one), federal and provincial taxes, exchange rate,
custom's brokerage, and you name it, $450. Who cares?       The last Radiological
Scientific Officers Course taught in Canada was in 1977. No future courses are
planned. There are no communities with a nuclear defense plan. I think I can make
that an unqualified statement. 
     Millions for destruction and not a penny for defense. Your family's destruction
bill for this year is $1,300 per member of your family. Do you realize what $1,000 a
year for the last ten years would have bought you in the way of nuclear survival
defense? Instead, your government has bought you destruction. Your family's
destruction.       Oh, I am well aware of the argument that our pile of bombs has
maintained peace in the world for the last ten years, and the belief that it will
continue to maintain peace. Believe it if you want to. All the high government
officials have their shelters. Why do they need them if you don't? [Author's update
note: Curiously, even the government's shelters for civil authorities have now been
closed].       If the government knew today that the Russians were going to attack
next week, do you think they would tell you? If they did, what would you and the
millions like you do? It would only create panic and get in their way. No, I do not
think that you would be told. Do you feel abandoned? 


MYTH #22: YOU WILL RECEIVE NO WARNING, AND THERE IS NO HOPE IF YOU DO. 
     The fact the government may not warn you, and is not giving you any assistance
to defend yourself does not mean that you haven't been warned. There are many people
who feel they can see the signs of the times. Anyway, if you have read this document,
consider yourself warned. You may still have time to prepare. If an attack should
occur you probably do not live in a primary target area and will have plenty of time
to escape. If you have made preparation.  


MYTH #23: ONE OF THE PRIMARY TARGETS WILL BE NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS. 
     Many persons come up with all sorts of rationalizations as to why they should
not prepare for survival. One is that there is a sufficient number of weapons in the
world, that if they were all used, they could destroy the whole of mankind. This is
true. 
     However, it may be that all the weapons will not be used. Some may be destroyed
by the other side. Some may misfire. Others may just fail to get launched. This is
why each side has so many extra. Moreover, many persons make the mistake of assuming
that it is all in man's hands and determined by man's will. Whatever. It may be that
some limited amount of the potential for destruction will be used. 
     Another rationalization often heard is that the person feels they live in a
target area such as in the vicinity of a nuclear generating plant. In actuality the
Russians have little need to target the nuclear generating plants and probably can do
more damage by not doing so. A bomb on the plant would just blow it to smithereens
and the material in the plant might add little to the radioactive fallout. On the
other hand, as a result of the EMP, if the plant is left on its own when it loses its
computer control it will go into a meltdown and add substantial radioactive material
to the atmosphere. 

     All of this is quite speculative, of course. There are no experts on nuclear
war. There is no one living who has been through one. There is general agreement that
it will be awfully terrible. It will probably take six or seven months just to bury
the bodies. But, there will probably be someone around to do it.  


Copyright Information
     This document is copyrighted. You are welcome to reproduce it, however, for FREE
distribution in whatever quantity you desire and by whatever means you desire so long
as you reproduce the entire document. Extensive quotes are also welcomed so long as
credit is properly given.       Our purpose in publishing this document is to
ameliorate the effects of a nuclear holocaust for as many people as we can reach, and
to locate as many people as we can who are willing and able to join our nuclear
survival group. 



NUCLEAR WAR, POST ATTACK RADIATION, " DO NOT LAY ON THE GROUND"  RULE 
You Will Survive Doomsday;  By Bruce Beach
http://www.ki4u.com/survive/doomsday.htm

MYTH #06: There would be no dangerous radioactivity after a couple of weeks.
     There is a wide range of misconceptions about what is safe and what is not. The
matter is sufficiently complicated that a person should have professional advice.
However, if there was no doctor going to be available to set a broken leg I presume
you would go ahead and do the best you could. And if one had to build a bridge to get
across a river and there was no structural engineer around, again I presume one would
have a go at it. 
     Doctor's would like to have their x-ray machines available when setting a leg,
and engineers would like to have their surveying equipment, specification guides, and
computers or slide rules when they are building a bridge. So you can well imagine a
radiological defense officer would like to have radiation detection equipment
available when giving advice in a radiation defense situation. 
     However, if the advise, expertise, or equipment, is not available, one must go
on. One rule of thumb is that if there is not enough fallout that you can see it,
then there is not enough of it that it will kill you. Fallout is usually small grain
dust or grit, often having a light color, but not always. It depends upon its source.
The best place to spot it is on a smooth surface, like the hood of a car.       The
more dense fallout is, probably the greater the hazard, although there isn't
necessarily a direct correlation. It may fall thick enough that quite a little heap
of it may be brushed up from a surface that is one foot square. It is possible to
build, from common materials found around the home, an expedient radiation detection
meter. The details for such a meter are found in books listed in the bibliography. 
     Even if one has commercially available radiation detection equipment there is
still some considerable skill required in its use. For example, almost all survey
equipment is designed to be used by an adult of normal stature. This means that if
the equipment is held in the hand of a walking adult it will tell how much radiation
is being received 3 1/2 feet above the ground, and particularly by the adults vital
organs which are above that level. A child's or an infant's vital organs will be
below that level and will be exposed to much more hazardous levels than an adult's.
For this reason, if one is passing through an area that is suspected to have any
radiation at all, a child should be carried on an adult's shoulders. 
     There is another rule of thumb that for every seven fold increase in time
radioactivity will decrease by ten fold. This is called the seven/ten rule. This is
based upon standard decay. It is useful as an example, for training, and in building
theoretical models, but in actual practice the decay rate is likely to be something
quite different. It is determined by the isotopic composition of the matter under
consideration. 
     There is another commonly held misconception among semi-trained individuals that
low levels of radiation cannot be rapidly fatal. Someone, after several days in the
confines of a cramped expedient shelter, might conclude that because their meters now
indicate a very low level of radioactivity (or perhaps no radioactivity if it is a
high-range instrument), that it would now be all right to go outside and sleep on the
ground in the cool breezes beneath the bright summer stars. 
     The fallacy again arises from taking measurements at a level that assumes the
vital organs are well above the radiation source. This is not the case when a person
is stretched out on the ground for long hours of sleep. These long hours of low level
radiation exposure to the vital organs will result in a fatality in just a few days.  
    Likewise, perfectly healthy adults who take infants out of the cramped,
unpleasant, expedient shelter to allow them to play during the day on a blanket
spread out on the ground will be quite shocked to see those infants sicken and die in
just a few days while they themselves remain healthy. The infant's vital organs again
being close to the weak radiation source for a long period while the adults' vital
organs are being protected by distance.  


Copyright Information
     This document is copyrighted. You are welcome to reproduce it, however, for FREE
distribution in whatever quantity you desire and by whatever means you desire so long
as you reproduce the entire document. Extensive quotes are also welcomed so long as
credit is properly given.       Our purpose in publishing this document is to
ameliorate the effects of a nuclear holocaust for as many people as we can reach, and
to locate as many people as we can who are willing and able to join our nuclear
survival group. 



Nuclear War, Sovereignty of God Over
(And here I thought this guy might not be a Christian.  Wrong again!   -Paul.)

You Will Survive Doomsday;  By Bruce Beach
http://www.ki4u.com/survive/doomsday.htm

MYTH #20: THE BOMBS TODAY ARE SO LARGE AND THERE ARE SO MANY THEY WILL DESTROY THE
WORLD.

     There are those who feel that the holocaust will destroy everything. And well it
might, for there are certainly more than enough nuclear weapons in the world to
achieve that end. "Except those days be shortened, none will survive, not even the
very elect." But, if it is the Divine Will, those days will be shortened. There are
those of us who feel that the Divine Hand is evidenced in the dealings of the world,
every moment unto every moment. 

     The Divine happenings often seem quite natural. If one were to say unto a
mountain, "Be thou removed and cast into the sea." and it should occur, another would
say an earthquake just happened to happen right then. If the forces of nature should
transpire so that in the midst of the holocaust the planet should suddenly tip on its
side and place His sign (the Southern Cross) suddenly blazing in the sky above the
heads of the people in the northern hemisphere, there are those who would only
recognize the natural causes. 

     Such an event would certainly play heck with the astral, satellite based, and
inertial, guidance systems upon which the individual and MIRVed warhead delivery
systems depend. 

     Events would not even have to be as miraculous as I have described in order to
limit Word War III. There is serious concern on the part of the military that they
will not even be able to fight the war because of such factors as the EMP. However, I
have faith in the military. I am sure they will do an admirable job of trying to
destroy the world.  
     None of us have an infallible insight into the future or its timetable. Whatever
will be, will be. We can but wait upon events to prove our speculations to be right
or wrong. While we are working and waiting some of us put our trust in God. Others
put it in the Government.  

Copyright Information

     This document is copyrighted. You are welcome to reproduce it, however, for FREE
distribution in whatever quantity you desire and by whatever means you desire so long
as you reproduce the entire document. Extensive quotes are also welcomed so long as
credit is properly given.       Our purpose in publishing this document is to
ameliorate the effects of a nuclear holocaust for as many people as we can reach, and
to locate as many people as we can who are willing and able to join our nuclear
survival group.


Nuclear War, Startling Article on Radiation, (Hormesis)
July 4th, 2002.  On the very last page, after the index, after his book's discussion
of all things relating to Nuclear War, from how to prepare, to building a shelter, to
food and survival, the author includes this startling article on exposure to
radiation.  Note reference to terrorists using nuclear weapons.

 
Nuclear War Survival Skills, Cresson M. Kearny
1999 Addendum on Hormesis
     None of the copies of Nuclear War Survival Skills, including this UPDATED AND
EXPANDED 1987 EDITION and other editions published before March 1999, have even
mentioned hormesis. The hormesis concept states that low and high doses of an agent
may have opposite effects. Although a high dose is harmful, a low dose may actually
be beneficial, perhaps by stimulating the body's normal defense and repair
mechanisms.
     When I wrote the first edition of this book, which was first published in 1979,
I knew about hormesis and believed it to be a valid explanation of a very important
survival process. But I did not even mention hormesis. For I believed that if at the
time I did so, then the chances of any U.S. Government organization advocating and
using my book would be reduced to almost zero. The idea of any radiation being
healthful was unthinkable even to the most well educated people.    
     I still believe I made the right decision for the years before the 1990s, when
the collapse of the Soviet Union greatly reduced the risk of a massive nuclear attack
on the United States and increased the chances of much smaller attacks, especially by
terrorists with few nuclear weapons.
     The facts proving the validity of hormesis are now overwhelming.  Physicist T.D.
Luckey's pioneering book, Radiation Honnesis, has become a recognized classic. And
the studies of Bernard Cohen, Ph.D., and other scientists have unexpectedly revealed
that Americans living in homes having "dangerous" radiation from radon and its
daughter products have better health and live longer than comparable persons exposed
to lower radiation levels. See Professor Cohen's irrefutable paper, "Test of the
Linear-No Threshold Theory of Radon Carcinogenesis for Inhaled Radon Decay Products,"
Health Physics, 68 (1995), pp 157-174.    
     Those Americans who learn the facts about hormesis will be less likely to panic
if subjected to light fallout from the explosion in the United States of a few
nuclear weapons, or to become fearful if they learn that they are receiving larger
than average radiation doses from radon and its daughter products in their homes. 


The Emergency Plans Book 

MEMORANDUM FOR:

THE SECRETARIES OF THE MILITARY DEPARTMENTS 
THE ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF DEFENSE THE GENERAL COUNSEL 
THE ASSISTANTS TO THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE 
THE DIRECTOR, GUIDED MISSILES 
THE CHAIRMAN, JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF 
THE CHIEF, ARMED FORCES SPECIAL WEAPONS PROJECT AND 
THE DIRECTOR, NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCY

FROM: J.W. CLEAR OFFICE OF EMERGENCY PLANNING ACTING DIRECTOR  23 APRIL 1958 
SECRET

SUBJECT: Revision of Emergency Plans Book

  It is intended that the Emergency Plan Book (EPB) of the Department of Defense will
be brought up to date as of 1 June 1958.

    Addressees are requested: (a) to review sections of the Plan Book which pertain
to emergency plans and actions over which they have cognizance; and (b) to submit on
or before 23 May 1958, either an indication that no plans are necessary, or changes
which are to be included in the proposed revision of the EPB.

    The situation assumptions, planning information, actions, operational assignments
and organization, and appendices, in Mobilization Plan C, approved 1 June 1957 for
planning policy and guidance, will be used for purposes of reviewing Department of
Defense plans and actions for the situations resulting from enemy attack on U.S.
Forces outside the CONUS.

    Attached for use in reviewing DOD emergency plans and actions to be implemented
in the event of a direct attack on CONUS, is a copy of "Capability Assumptions" (Part
I-A, pp.l-2), the "Situation Assumptions-The Attack" (Part I-C, pp. 27-29), and the
"Situation Assumptions-Post Attack Analysis" (Part I-C, pp. 30-43) of ODM
Mobilization Plan D Minus. These sections were noted by the NSC, at its 11 July 1957
meeting, as being suitable for defense mobilization planning for a surprise attack on
the CONUS. They constitute the latest and only approved guidance to the departments
and agencies on the D-Minus type situations.


PLAN D-MINUS MAY 1, 1957

PART I. PLANNING INFORMATION

A. CAPABILITY ASSUMPTIONS

   CAPABILITY ASSUMPTIONS are statements of assumed capabilities of the USSR, known
effects of atomic weapons and assumed advanced warning capabilities of our own
forces. CAPABILITY ASSUMPTIONS are not statements of intent nor of what the USSR will
do. They are statements designed to give uniform interpretation to the knowledge of
various agencies engaged in defense mobilization planning. All CAPABILITY
ASSUMPTIONS, as well as all other assumptions in Part I-Planning Information, are
consistent with intelligence sources. It is within the range and scope of the
CAPABILITY ASSUMPTIONS that SITUATION ASSUMPTIONS and POLICY ASSUMPTIONS have been
developed.

1. The USSR is capable of:
a.  Producing  atomic weapons  of varying yields ranging from a few kilotons
(thousands of tons) to megatons (millions of tons) of TNT equivalent, biological and
chemical agents, and incendiary and high- explosive weapons.

b. Delivering these weapons anywhere within the United States and upon U.S.-deployed
forces and Allies by piloted aircraft, submarine launched missiles or mines or
clandestine means.

c. Fusing these weapons for air or surface burst or for delayed action.

d. Employing propaganda, psychological warfare, and sabotage. 
e. Supporting a large-scale war effort.

2. Warning Capabilities:

a. Weapons launched from submarines may arrive without warning. Likewise, weapons
emplaced by clandestine means may be detonated without warning.

b. An air defense warning of an initial mass attack by manned aircraft can be
received on the Canadian border and the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts from a few
minutes to three hours before the aircraft reach those boundaries. Intelligence as to
the probable time attacking aircraft will take to reach specific areas can be
available to civil defense through the Attack Warning System.

c. Interior areas can have one to three hours additional warning between the time an
air defense warning is received and the time when they are under attack from manned
aircraft.

d. Strategic warning cannot be assured.

PART I. PLANNING INFORMATION

B. MILITARY EFFECTS [was not released]

C, SITUATION ASSUMPTIONS

   SITUATION ASSUMPTIONS are statements describing a national condition and a
condition of the international political and military environment, the existence of
which would require immediate and forceful action by the U.S. Government. They are
not forecasts of future events but describe for planning purposes a condition that
could occur.

    The situation described herein has resulted from the exercise of some of the
capabilities of the USSR described in Section A, CAPABILITY ASSUMPTIONS, and the
effects of atomic weapons described in Section B, WEAPONS EFFECTS.


1. THE ATTACK

1. The USSR has made attacks with large numbers of atomic weapons on the United
States and on some of its territories, bases overseas, and its Allies. The domestic
air defense warning yellow for the first attack was disseminated two hours before
USSR aircraft appeared over U.S. frontiers. At the same time as the air defense
warning yellow was announced, submarine launched missiles arrived and weapons
emplaced by clandestine means were detonated. However, the major weight of attack has
been delivered by manned aircraft.

2. Air Defense operations in North America and overseas have destroyed a substantial
portion of the attacking aircraft but half of those destroyed had reached the bomb
release lines and had released their weapons. U.S. and Allied military operations
have resulted in casualties and damage to the enemy at least as great as those
received. Notwithstanding severe losses of military and civilian personnel and
materiel, air operations against the enemy are continuing and our land and naval
forces are heavily engaged. Both sides are making use of atomic weapons for tactical
air support and in the land battle.

3. The USSR is expected to use its remaining capability to launch additional
strategic air attacks and has considerable air power for tactical and air defense
operations. The USSR submarine fleet is active in both the Atlantic and Pacific and
serious losses to U.S. and Allied-controlled ocean shipping are being incurred.
Intensive propaganda is being directed against the U.S. and its Allies. Clandestine
activities and sabotage are being conducted.

4. Both on the North American continent and overseas, the major weight of the attacks
appears to have been directed on U.S. and Allied military installations including
atomic weapons delivery capabilities and facilities producing atomic weapons, coastal
naval bases, concentrations of ground forces, and ports and airfields servicing
international transportation. In addition, the District of Columbia and many
population and industrial centers have been attacked. Due to actions of Air Defense
Forces and to aiming and other errors of the attacking forces, many weapons resulted
in random surface bursts. 
5. The weapons employed range from a few kilotons TNT equivalent to several megatons.
All of the weapons in the megaton range burst on the surface. The great majority of
the weapons in the kiloton range were air bursts. Blast and thermal radiation damage
extends from 5 miles to as much as 15 miles from ground zeros. Severe fire storms
have occurred in heavily built-up cities and many rural fires were started involving
growing crops and forests. The surface bursts have resulted in widespread radioactive
fallout of such intensity that over substantial parts of the United States the taking
of shelter for considerable periods of time is the only means of survival. Prior to
assurance of safety anywhere on the surface, without shelter, radiological defense
monitoring is essential.

6. The general level of casualties throughout the United States is extremely serious.
In many localities it is catastrophic. The following is an estimate as of D-Plus-7 of
casualties which have occurred or will occur as a result of the attacks:

           (Millions) Killed and Injured, Fatally Injured

Recovery Total Possible

Blast and Thermal   12.5          12.5      25 
Nuclear Radiation   12.5          12.5      25 
Totals              25.0          25.0      50

Without thorough radiological defense monitoring and the application of adequate
protective measures many more radiation injuries will occur from the cumulative
effects of exposure to residual radiation and the consumption of contaminated 
foodstuffs and water


PART I. PLANNING INFORMATION

C. SITUATION ASSUMPTIONS

2. POST-ATTACK ANALYSIS

1. GENERAL. With human casualties exceeding material losses, ultimate recuperative
potential to meet the requirements of the surviving population is high, providing
this population can be adequately motivated. In spite of the magnitude of the
catastrophe that has struck the nation and the possibility of additional, but lighter
attacks, more than 100 million people and tremendous material resources remain.
Restoration of the economy and our society will be possible and necessary. The speed
with which restoration is accomplished will depend on governmental leadership and
direction, maintenance of the confidence, and initiative of the people and the wisdom
of the organization for utilization of remaining resources. 
2. The attack has caused an almost complete paralysis in the functioning of the
economic system in all of its aspects. For many years the size and shape of the
economy will reflect these effects. There is an immediate severe impact on organized
governmental activities, a fragmentation of society into local groups, a
deterioration of our social standards, a breakdown in our system of exchange, and
complete disruption of normal production processes. The functioning of the
post-attack economy may depend chiefly on the rapidity and efficiency with which
local and regional action can be organized to carry out broad national policies
disseminated as widely as possible before attack and reiterated or expanded by any
means immediately after attack. This would naturally include the maximum utilization
of our remaining resources, among other things. 
3. Consideration of the post-attack situation must be directed to two separate and
distinct phases, although at some point in time these overlap and tend to merge. The
first period might be described as predominantly the survival period; the second is
predominantly the reconstruction period.

4. During the survival period the economy is operating in a highly disorganized
manner. The utilized labor force is engaged in large numbers in disposing of the
dead, taking care of surviving injured, decontaminating and cleaning up bombed areas,
returning public works and utilities to operation, and other activities related to
the direct and immediate effects of the attacks. After taking account of the armed
forces requirements, the emergency government workers, and essential services, there
are few workers left to produce goods. During the first three to six months there
will be more capacity for the production of goods than workers to operate the
facilities. The production of goods of any kind will be either of an emergency
nature- -essential survival items are of a haphazard nature in isolated, not directly
affected areas.

5. Protection of the whole population from the physiological effects of radioactive
fallout is the most significant aspect of this period. Days, weeks and months must
elapse before great areas are safe for continued occupancy. Many areas are of such
importance that decontamination measures must be taken without waiting for
radioactive delay.

6. The care of the surviving injured presents a major problem, calling for the
coordination of all resources which can be used in this field. The provision of the
necessary food, clothing, and lodging also call for concentrated efforts on all
governmental levels. The main problem with respect to food and clothing is one of
distribution, arranging to get the available supplies to the areas of greatest needs.
The main problem with respect to lodging is directing people to where lodging is
available. Action during this survival period must be directed principally toward
steps to ensure survival of the remaining population and support of necessary
military operations.

7. After the more pressing of the survival needs of the damaged economy have been
met, the reconstruction period will start. There will be an overlap here; the latter
period will start before the former ends and it will be impossible to state precisely
when one starts and the other stops. Basic actions necessary for re- establishment of
the economy, particularly as to the undamaged parts, will have to be taken,
announced, or stimulated at the earliest possible moment of the post-attack effort;
although some longer-term actions in that connection may not become wholly relevant
until the secondary stage.

8. The reconstruction phase calls for actions of a different type than those used in
the survival phase. In the survival phase, the concern is for the immediate needs of
the people; in the reconstruction phase, the emphasis is on programs for the future
needs of the nation. In the light of the damage, the remaining resources, and the
overall national demands, it must be decided what programs must be started. During
this period there will still be severe strains on resources, such as manpower,
facilities, materials, and services. Programs for the maximum utilization of
remaining resources must be devised. 
9. GOVERNMENT. Governmental control is seriously jeopardized and central federal
direction is virtually non-existent. Many of the highest government officials are
casualties although the presidential office is functioning. Washington was so
severely damaged that no operations there are possible. Token complements of
personnel at the relocation centers for those governmental agencies that had them are
inadequate to carry out essential functions. Some additional personnel who evacuated
during the warning period or waited out the radiation hazard in adequate shelter will
be available to augment the relocation complements where fallout conditions permit.
Because of heavy fallout, none of the personnel at a few of the relocation sites
survived. At several additional relocation sites almost all personnel are sick and
many are dying. The same situation applies to the Regional Mobilization Committee
headquarters. Communication and transportation between the relocation and regional
centers are inadequate. In many areas, including several of the largest cities, where
surviving injured outnumber the surviving uninjured active adults, the social fabric
has ceased to exist in the pre-attack pattern. Confusion is widespread in these areas
and customary control and direction are non- existent. These extreme conditions are
most prevalent in the vicinity of the heavily damaged and contaminated areas.

10. HEALTH. Health resources, including physicians, nurses, and other manpower,
hospitals and other medical care facilities, and health supplies and equipment, are
in a critical state. This results both from the high concentration of these resources
in the attacked areas, and from the unprecedented requirements for the surviving
resources. Even with the most stringent selection of patients to be treated,
rationing of supplies from the outset, and maximum support of industrial restoration,
remaining supplies will be adequate only for minimal needs.

11. From a pre-attack total of 1.6 million hospital beds,
approximately 100,000 are available for use at D-7. Where medical care is possible,
most patients are being treated under improvised arrangements on the ground, in
tents, in any available buildings-- utilizing civil defense emergency hospitals and
other available hospitals and medical equipment.

12. The patient load requirements have essentially exhausted immediately available
health and sanitation supplies in the affected areas. Much of the supplies remaining
are either inaccessible or unusable because of radiological contamination or because
of the disruption of transportation. The production potential for health supplies and
equipment is almost completely inoperable for an extended period. Most of the plants
which remain are seriously damaged or inactivated due to radioactive contamination
and lack of skilled personnel.

13. The medical care requirements are overwhelming. In addition to 25,000,000 dead or
dying, there are 25,000,000 surviving casualties who require emergency medical care.
Of this number, one-half (12,500,000) are suffering from blast and thermal injuries
and have an immediate and evident need for treatment. Of the 25,000,000 radiation
casualties, 12,500,000 have received lethal dosages and have died or will  die 
regardless  of treatment.  Of the 12,500,000 remaining one- half will require
hospitalization at some time during the period from D-2 weeks to D-12 weeks, with the
peak, 5,000,000 being reached between D-5 weeks and D-7 weeks. Some of this
requirement for hospitalization can be met by facilities becoming available which
were earlier unusable due to contamination and shortages of transportation and other
services.

14. Inadequate provision for laboratory diagnostic aids has hampered the more
accurate determination of degrees of radiation injury. Unless such determinations are
made, many lives may be lost because treatment is being given to hopeless cases.

15. Besides the casualties resulting from the effects of attack-- blast, thermal, and
nuclear radiation-there are 120 million surviving of which there is a daily census of
9 million (on the basis of a threefold increase over normal peacetime experience)
requiring some type of medical care because of displacement of people, disruption of
normal medical and sanitation services, pollution of food and water supplies,
environmental exposure, physical and emotional stress, malnutrition and overcrowding.
Included in the 9 million above, the numbers afflicted with communicable diseases are
considered to be increasing rapidly among both the adult and the pre-adult
populations. These diseases include typhoid fever, influenza, smallpox, diphtheria,
tetanus, and diarrheal and streptococcal diseases. There are some reports of
outbreaks of yellow fever and other tropical diseases in the South and of plague,
cholera, and typhus in coastal cities. Reserve stocks of vaccines are being rapidly
depleted or are inaccessible due to fallout, blast damage, or other reasons.
Epidemics of certain of these and of other communicable diseases are anticipated.

16. FOOD. Many survivors will need to remain under cover and acute shortages will
develop except in the available shelters that have been equipped by individuals or
groups with adequate food and supplies. When decay of radioactivity permits movement
of people out of shelters in the contaminated areas, it is important that food
supplies be available without delay. Salvable food stocks in the contaminated areas
will particularly meet immediate needs since requirements have been reduced by heavy
loss of life. To make up local deficiencies, additional food must be shipped into
some areas. Ability to do this depends on adequacy of transportation and
communication since food supplies in the nation as a whole are expected to be
adequate for all essential civilian and military needs in this immediate post-attack
period. Day to day production of essential food commodities must be maintained and,
where necessary, restored, since existing food stocks cannot for long make up for
loss of current production.

17. HOUSING AND COMMUNITY FACILITIES. The housing situation is critical. Fire and
blast have either completely destroyed or rendered unrepairable significant portions
of the housing supply. The situation is further complicated by fallout which has made
much of the remaining housing unusable for varying lengths of time. In only very
isolated situations is the housing inventory adequate to rehouse survivors from
attacked areas. Extensive repair and restoration work on the remaining standing stock
and emergency shelters are desperately needed. Voluntary and enforced billeting
measures and utilization of non- residential structures are being effected.

18. Community facilities have been extremely hard hit. Blast damage has not only
completely eliminated major water and sewer networks, but has at the same time
dangerously impaired the function of water and sewer facilities in peripheral areas
otherwise unaffected by blast and fire damage. Stopgap arrangements for providing
potable water from local sources are in effect, but waste disposal is a serious
health menace.

19. MONETARY AND CREDIT SYSTEMS. The monetary and credit systems have collapsed in
damaged areas and are under severe pressure in those areas overrun with refugees and
in the areas where evacuees are concentrated. In transactions occurring in these
areas the price structure is rising sharply as to some essentials while collapsing as
to other goods and services. Bartering, unorganized confiscation, and looting are in
evidence and threaten further the restoration of any orderly degree of economic
activity. Because of the interrelationship of the monetary  and banking systems,
personal and business financial transactions in undamaged areas threaten to reach a
standstill. 
20. DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATIONS. Minimum nationwide telephone and telegraph
facilities remain available to provide for the exchange of urgent communications
except with those areas actually bombed and destroyed, and with those areas in which
communications facilities have been sabotaged.  The loss of commercial power sources
together with a serious personnel problem created by loss of specialized manpower
through casualties, sickness and confusion, the fear of fallout, and lack of food and
water, seriously limits employing the remaining communication facilities to their
full capacity. Consequently, there are long delays in placing all but the most urgent
telephone calls as well as in the delivery of telegraph messages. 
21. INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION. International
radiotelegraph, radiotelephone, and cable control terminals located in gateway cities
on the East and West coasts have been destroyed. Damage from sabotage has occurred at
cable landing locations on both the East and West coasts and the cutting of the ocean
telephone cable has severely reduced the submarine cable capacity for handling
telegraph and telephone traffic to Atlantic, Hawaiian, and Alaskan points. Limited
radiotelegraph and radiotelephone capacity remains, however, but is unreliable due to
electronic jamming, damage to facilities at overseas locations, sabotage efforts, and
radiological contamination effects upon surviving technical and operating personnel.
Air mail is being employed where available and practicable to supplement the reduced
capabilities of the overseas communications network. 
22. TRANSPORTATION. Severe disruption to transportation service exists in all
attacked and contaminated areas. Within these areas there has been heavy damage to
terminal, warehousing, servicing, and related facilities. Motor vehicles in
non-attacked areas free of
contamination, including those not previously engaged in common carrier service, are
being mustered for use in support of disaster areas. Rail transportation is affected
more seriously by disruption of lines and yards in attacked areas than by loss of
rolling stock. Large quantities of rail and highway motive power and equipment were
not damaged, making it possible to continue minimum essential traffic within those
areas not duly affected by contamination and to restore principal lines to service as
rapidly as radioactive decay or decontamination measures permit opening
uncontaminated lines which bypass the physically damaged areas. However, reserve
stocks of operating supplies and fuel for all forms of domestic transportation are
being depleted at a faster rate than they are being replenished. 
23. In major port areas there has been heavy damage to piers, warehousing,
shipbuilding and repair yards, and related facilities. Damage to shore side cargo
handling facilities has necessitated the use of alternate out loading ports and sites
along the coasts and the limitation of shipments to the current capacity of those
locations. Damage to reserve fleets has been minor, but reactivation is impeded by
losses of repair yards, tugs, and manpower. The worldwide distribution of merchant
shipping at sea and in foreign ports has left the major part of the active fleet
intact, but ship losses are nevertheless serious in light of immediate and heavy
requirements for shipping to support and reinforce overseas military operations.
Neither ships nor convoy protection in the vulnerable coastwise sea- lanes can be
provided for other than direct military support, except in cases of extreme necessity
in priority higher than that of the military. Merchant shipping, therefore, cannot be
counted on to supplement or replace inland domestic surface transportation to any
substantial extent.

24. Domestic airlift capacity has been decreased substantially due to damage and
destruction of airfields, airstrips and aircraft, lack of communications, manpower,
repair parts, fuel, and maintenance facilities. The remaining aircraft are largely
devoted to high- priority routes and highest-priority traffic under the air priority
system and other controls. Trans-ocean airlift capacity is decreased substantially
due to destruction of aircraft, damage to bases, circuitous rerouting and inadequate
ground facility capability. 
25. ELECTRIC POWER. Due, for the most part, to heavy damage to distribution lines and
substations in bombed cities, sufficient electric power is not immediately available
in the majority of the fringe areas and reception centers for evacuees. Most acute
need for power in such areas is for refrigeration, hospital operation, community
water systems, heating, and mass feeding. Small portable generators can meet only a
fraction of these needs. Aggregate generating capacity of electric utilities operable
following the attack is sufficient for minimal national needs; therefore, the power
shortage will be alleviated in most areas as soon as transmission and distribution
lines can be repaired, new lines strung, interconnections effected and communications
restored. Restoration of electric service will be slower than in cases of natural
disaster. Anticipated delays are due to several factors, including difficulty in
transporting utility repair crews and material from undamaged areas to augment those
in areas of need and denial of immediate access into fallout areas to make repairs
and to obtain stocks of materials and equipment, new or salvable. Where primary
sources of steam-generated electric power have been destroyed, the power-consuming
facilities (industrial plants, stores, homes, etc.) have, in large measure, likewise
been destroyed. In most cases, where hydroelectric-generating facilities have been
damaged, there is enough generating capacity intact in the system and through
interconnections with other systems, to meet essential needs of the areas served. In
those areas, however, sharp curtailment of supply to undamaged industrial plants will
be necessary for an extended period. Enough skilled manpower has survived to operate
generating plants. Fuel stocks at thermal generating plants using coal, are adequate
to keep plants operating for a minimum of 30 to 60 days even after allowance for
possible use of a part of their stockpiles for other emergency purposes. Generating
plants dependent solely on oil as a fuel can continue operating for a shorter period
from stocks on hand, the time varying with the stock position of individual plants.

26. FUELS. Of all the fuels (including petroleum products, gas, and solid fuels),
motor fuels including aviation are the most universally used throughout the nation,
regardless of season. Therefore, even though movement of the mass of civilian
passenger automobiles is strictly limited, the availability of motor fuels for uses
essential to human survival and military operations is of widespread and urgent
concern. Among such uses are the operations of trucks, diesel locomotives, water
transport, aircraft, tractors and other farm equipment needed for food production,
and a host of engines required for water supply, sanitary disposal systems, and
hospitals. 
27. Initial military operations are being fueled almost entirely from stocks in
military storage. Stocks in motor fuels in undamaged areas to and through which
evacuees moved are nearly exhausted, despite rationing efforts by some local
authorities. In many of these areas and in contiguous support areas, radioactive
fallout temporarily immobilizes all transport and farming operations, thus halting
consumption in wheeled equipment and simultaneously preventing replenishment of
stocks. When decay of fallout permits resumption of human activity, some consumers
such as railroads, airlines, and to a lesser extent, certain farmers, can operate for
a brief period using stocks on hand. Generally, however, there will be an immediate,
heavy drain on bulk plant stocks of motor fuels including aviation. The rate at which
such stocks can in turn be replenished will vary by areas, depending upon
availability of surface transportation, the extent to which they are normally served
by pipelines, and proximity to surviving, operable petroleum refineries.

28. In cold areas to and through which evacuees have moved, the situation with
respect to cooking and heating fuels (kerosene, fuel oil, liquefied petroleum gas,
coal, and gas) is somewhat similar to that of motor fuels. Sheltering and feeding of
swollen populations in such areas are rapidly depleting cooking and heating fuels in
homes and other buildings and, in communities served by natural gas, lowering
pressure in distribution lines. Fallout prevents immediate replenishment of home
stocks. When deliveries can be resumed, local distributors' stocks of fuel oil,
"bottled" gas, and coal will soon be gone. Local industrial and some utility
stockpiles of coal can be tapped if needed for heating of hospitals, homes, and
shelters. Shifts from less available to more available fuels will be necessary. At
the outset, wood where available is providing essential warmth, but this cannot long
meet needs of masses of people. Again, provision of minimum essential supplies of
cooking and heating fuels will depend largely upon restoration of transportation and
communication. 
29. The physical productive capacity of oil and gas wells and coal mines has been
little affected by the attack, but their operation in some areas is precluded
temporarily by radioactive fallout making surface work hazardous to human survival.
Even after decay of fallout permits men to work at these facilities, breaks in power
service will temporarily prevent operation of certain of them as well as some
pipeline pumping stations. A substantial percentage of aboveground fuel facilities in
bombed areas--including petroleum refineries, pipeline terminals, tank farms for
storage of crude oil and products, gas compressor stations, and coal-handling
equipment at rail and port terminals--have been destroyed or extensively damaged.
Destruction of docks, tanks, and refineries in coastal areas has drastically
curtailed inter-coastal movement and importation of petroleum and petroleum products
by tankers. Inland, the disruption of and damage to railroad, waterway, and highway
transport at or near urban centers will continue to hamper distribution of both coal
and petroleum products.

30. The non-military requirements for fuel in the post-attack period will be much
smaller than pre-attack requirements, since millions of fuel consuming
units--particularly residences, commercial buildings, electric power and generating
plants, and factories--have disappeared in the bombing. With strict rationing of
petroleum products and allocation of coal, the surviving fuel production capacity,
including petroleum refinery capacity, is sufficient to meet properly time- phased
military requirements and minimum essential civilian needs for both motor fuel and
heating fuel and, also, progressively to supply reviving industries. Priority will be
given to the supplying of fuel for human survival and military operations, including
communications, transportation, electric power, and food production essential to
both. Refinery yields will be adjusted to fit the pattern of needs for particular
petroleum products depending on the season of the attack and military requirements.
Nevertheless, due mainly to transportation difficulties, severe, localized shortages
of one fuel or another from time to time during the next several months should be
anticipated. This will call for endurance by affected communities, maximum
conservation of motor fuels, perhaps a return to relatively primitive methods of
cooking and heating, and ingenuity on the part of the fuel industries and government
to alleviate shortages.

31. MANPOWER. In assessing the survival and emergency work to be done, total manpower
requirements for civil defense purposes substantially exceed the available supply.
Although manpower priorities have been established in individual local areas, the
difficulties of communicating with higher levels of government have resulted in
conflicting demands on certain support areas. Some civil defense services are
experiencing support surpluses while others cannot function because needed support is
lacking.

32. The provision of effective manpower support is jeopardized by the dislocation and
disorganization of the general population. In many communities evacuation took place
in anticipation of initial and follow-up attack. They are now attempting to return to
their homes but the process is slow, and previously identified skills cannot be
located until the evacuated population is reestablished in the home community. It
will be some time before manpower in such areas can be organized to provide needed
support to devastated areas and to restore essential services and production.

33. In many localities radioactive fallout, the imminence of fallout, and
particularly the fear of this unseen hazard has temporarily immobilized a tremendous
proportion of the manpower which would otherwise be immediately available. Denial of
access to large areas because of the fallout hazard has compounded the already major
problems in transportation of labor to the point of need.

34. In many localities there is a surplus of manpower in certain skilled occupations
which could be used if necessary equipment and supplies were available. In other
localities, the best use of manpower resources requires the temporary separation of
workers from their families until housing, transportation, feeding, and other
conditions permit reuniting family groups wherever the workers are most needed.
Difficulty has been encountered in trying to contain evacuated populations in
relocation centers around cities which have been attacked so that they do not further
endanger their lives by moving into fallout areas. Many thousands of people are
trying to reach the homes of friends and relatives. As a consequence, the size of the
labor force and the skill distribution within the relocated area changes
continuously. The instability of this situation adversely affects the recruitment of
specific skills within the area, and throws askew the labor assessments necessary to
balance manpower demand with available supply with a minimum of population shift.

35. In relocation areas, utilization of available unskilled manpower for necessary
emergency work is most inefficient for lack of enough trained civil defense
technicians and of leaders and sub-leaders previously trained and organized.

36. Training programs offer little solution except for very short-term skill
development.

37. PRODUCTION. As in all other areas of economic activity the effect of the attack
on levels of production can best be described in time phases. There is an immediate
and virtually complete paralysis of the production effort, even in non-damaged and
slightly damaged areas. Following this "shock" phase, the gradual return of workers
to their places of employment sets in motion a slow recovery cycle, manifesting
itself first in scattered, undamaged, non-fallout areas. As the fallout decays and
decontamination is started the areas of recovery expand, limited primarily by
manpower shortages.

38. During the early post-attack period primary emphasis must be placed on the
production of essential civilian goods and services and on military items urgently
needed for combat and support. Two major factors determine achievable levels of
production.

39. First, a major limitation on post-attack production will arise from the damage to
the chain of production. The pre-attack production levels achieved in this country
resulted from the functioning of a highly complex operation, in which many thousands
of contributors to overall production were bound together through the
interrelationships of production processes. Suppliers of raw materials, fabricators
of metal shapes and forms, manufacturers of components and subassemblies, and final
product producers, all contributed to the flow of production in such a manner that,
by and large, items necessary for successive steps in the productive process were
available when and where needed. It is impossible to measure the damage to this chain
of production in all of its ramifications. It seems reasonable to assume, however,
that the process has suffered severe damage, not immediately reparable. It will take
months to determine the bottlenecks and dislocations, and many more months to
overcome shortages and imbalances. The resumption of any sizeable production effort
will, of course, be dependent on the extent to which necessary services--power,
transportation, communications, etc. can be provided.

40. A second major limitation is the number and types of workers available for
production purposes, particularly in the first six months. As the need for workers
for emergency civil defense efforts lessens, more persons will become available for
the production of goods and services. However, even after the first six months,
manpower will still impose a restriction on the size of the production program,
because of manpower losses and also because of the lowered efficiency of the
available utilized labor force.


CHAPTER 2
Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons Effects

2-1. General 
Nuclear weapons are the most destructive weapons available for use on the battlefield
today. Biological agents are easy to disperse on the battlefield without immediate
detection; however, their effects on exposed troops can change the course of the
battle. As more nations enter the arena of developing biological and chemical
weapons, their potential effects on our troops will increase. Biological and chemical
weapons/agents may be employed by terrorists, or in any level of conflict (low-,
mid-, or high-intensity). Consideration of both the physical and biological effects
of these weapons is required for HSS operations. 

2-2. Physical Effects of Nuclear Weapons 
a. The principal physical effects of nuclear weapons are blast, thermal radiation
(heat), and nuclear radiation. These effects are dependent upon the yield (or size)
of the weapon expressed in kilotons (KT), physical design of the weapon (such as
conventional and enhanced), and upon the method of employment. For a low altitude
detonation of a moderate-sized (3 to 10 KT) weapon, the energy is distributed (Figure
2-1) as follows:  


(1) Fifty percent as blast. 

(2) Thirty-five percent as thermal radiation; made up of a wide spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation, including infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light and
some soft x-ray radiation. 

(3) Fourteen percent as nuclear radiation, 4 percent as initial ionizing radiation
composed of neutrons and gamma rays emitted within the first minute after detonation,
and 10 percent as residual nuclear radiation (fallout).  
(4) One percent as EMP. 

b. Larger weapons are more destructive than smaller weapons, but the destructive
effect is not linear. Table 2-1 presents a comparison of three aspects of nuclear
weapons effects with yield. 



c. The effects of blast, heat, and nuclear radiation are also determined by the
altitude at which the weapon is detonated. Nuclear blasts are classified as air,
surface, or subsurface bursts. 

(1) An airburst is a detonation in air at an altitude below 30,000 meters, but high
enough so that the fireball does not touch the surface of the earth. The altitude is
varied to obtain the desired tactical effects. Initial radiation will be a
significant hazard, but there is essentially no local fallout. The ground immediately
below the airburst may have a small area of neutron-induced radioactivity. This may
pose a hazard to troops passing through the area. 

(2) A surface burst is a detonation in which the fireball actually touches the land
or water surface. In this case, the area affected by blast, thermal radiation, and
initial nuclear radiation will be smaller than for an airburst of comparable yield;
however, in the region around ground zero, the destruction will be much greater and a
crater is often produced. Additionally, a significant amount of fallout is created
and can be a hazard downwind. 

(3) A subsurface burst is an explosion in which the detonation is below the surface
of land or water. Cratering usually results. If the burst does not penetrate the
surface, the only hazard is from the ground or water shock. If the burst penetrates
the surface, blast, thermal, and initial nuclear radiation will be present, though
less than for a surface burst of comparable yield. Local fallout will be heavy over a
small area. 

2-3. Physiological Effects of Nuclear Weapons 
The physiological effects of nuclear weapons result from: direct physical effects
from the blast; the thermal radiation; the ionizing radiation (initial or residual);
or a combination of these. For smaller weapons (less than 10 KT), ionizing radiation
is the primary creator of casualties requiring medical care, while for larger weapons
(greater than 10 KT), thermal radiation is the primary cause of injury. 

a. The rapid compression and decompression of blast waves on the human body results
in transmission of pressure waves through the tissues. Resulting damage is primarily
at junctions between tissues of different densities (bone and muscle), or at the
interface between tissue and airspace. Lung tissue and the gastrointestinal system
(both contain air) are particularly susceptible to injury. The tissue disruptions can
lead to severe hemorrhage or to air embolism; either can be rapidly fatal. Direct
overpressure effects do not extend out as far from the point of detonation and are
often masked by the drag force effects. A typical range of probability of lethality,
with variation in overpressure for a 1 KT weapon, is shown in Table 2-2. 


(1) The significance of the data is that the human body is relatively resistant to
static overpressure compared to rigid structures such as buildings. For example, and
unreinforced cinder block panel will shatter at 0.1 to 0.2 atmospheres.

(2) Overpressures lower than those in Table 2-2 can cause nonlethal injuries such as
lung damage and eardrum rupture. Lung damage is a relatively serious injury, usually
requiring hospitalization, even if not fatal; whereas eardrum rupture is a minor
injury, often requiring no treatment at all.  
(a) The threshold level of overpressure for an unreinforced, unreflected blast wave
which can cause lung damage is about 1.0 atmosphere.  
(b) The threshold level for eardrum rupture is around 0.2 atmospheres; the
overpressure associated with a 50 percent probability of eardrum rupture is about 1.1
atmospheres. 

(3) Casualties requiring medical treatment from direct blast effects are produced by
overpressures between 1.0 and 3.5 atmospheres. However, other effects (such as
indirect blast injuries and thermal injuries) are so predominate that patients with
only direct blast injuries make up a small part of the patient work load. 

b. The drag forces (indirect blast) of the blast winds are proportional to the
velocities and duration of the winds. The winds are relatively short in duration, but
can reach velocities of several hundred kilometers (km) per hour. Injury can result
either from missiles impacting on the body, or from the physical displacement of the
body against objects and structures.  
(1) The distance from the point of detonation at which severe indirect injury occurs
is greater than that for equally serious direct blast injuries. A high probability of
serious indirect injury can occur when the peak overpressure is about 0.2
atmospheres. This range will increase with the increased size of the weapon; for a 1
KT weapon the range is 0.22 km, whereas for a 20 KT weapon, the range is 0.76 km.
Injuries will occur and casualties will be generated at greater ranges, but not
consistently. 

(2) The drag forces of the blast winds produced by a nuclear detonation are so great
that almost any form of vegetation or structure will be broken up or fragmented into
missiles. Thus, multiple, varied missile injuries will be common, increasing their
overall severity and significance. Table 2-3 lists ranges at which significant
missile injuries can be expected.  


(3) The velocity to which missiles are accelerated is the major factor in causing
injury. The probability of a penetration injury increases with increasing velocity,
particularly for small, sharp missiles such as glass fragments. Small, light objects
are accelerated to speeds approaching the maximum (wind) velocity. Table 2-4 shows
data for probability of penetration related to size and velocity of glass fragments. 



(4) Heavy, blunt missiles may not penetrate, but can result in significant injury,
particularly fractures. The threshold velocity for skull fractures from a 4.5
milligram (mg) missile is about 4.6 meters/second.  
(5) The drag forces of the blast winds are strong enough to displace even large
objects (such as vehicles), or to cause the collapse of large structures (such as
buildings) resulting in serious crushing injuries. Man himself can become a missile.
The resulting injuries sustained are called translational injuries. The velocity at
which the body is displaced will determine the probability and the severity of
injury. Assuming a displacement of 3.0 meters, the impact velocity associated with
various degrees of injury is shown in Table 2-5. The velocities in Table 2-5 can be
correlated against yield. The ranges at which such velocities would be found are
given in Table 2-6. 





2-4. Biological Effects of Thermal Radiation 
The thermal radiation emitted by a nuclear detonation causes burns in two ways--by
direct absorption of the thermal energy through exposed surfaces (flash burns); or by
the indirect action of fires in the environment (flame burns). Indirect flame burns
can easily outnumber all other types of injury.  
a. Thermal radiation travels outward from the fireball in a straight line; therefore,
the amount of energy available to cause flash burns decreases rapidly with distance.
Close to the fireball all objects will be incinerated. The range for 100 percent
lethality will vary with yield, height of burst, weather, environment, and immediacy
of treatment. The critical factors determining the degree of burn injury are the flux
(calories per square centimeter [cal/cm2]) and the duration of the thermal pulse. The
amount of thermal radiation needed to cause a flash second-degree burn on exposed
skin will vary with the yield of the weapon and the nature of the pulse (Table 2-7). 



NOTE

The battle-dress uniform, mission-oriented protective posture (MOPP) gear, or any
other clothing will provide additional protection against flash burns. The airspaces
between the clothing significantly impede heat transfer and may prevent or reduce the
severity of burns, depending on the magnitude of the thermal flux. 



b. Indirect (flame) burns result from exposure to fires caused by the thermal effects
in the environment, particularly from ignition of clothing. The larger-yield weapons
are more likely to cause fire storms over extensive areas. There are too many
variables in the environment to predict either incidence or severity of casualties.
Expect the burns to be far less uniform (in degree) and not limited to exposed
surfaces. For example, the respiratory system may be exposed to the effects of hot
gases produced by extensive fires. Respiratory system burns cause high morbidity and
high mortality rates. 

c. The initial thermal pulse can cause eye injuries in the forms of flash blindness
and retinal scarring. Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant flash of
light produced by the nuclear detonation. This flash swamps the retina, bleaching out
the visual pigments and producing temporary blindness. During daylight hours, this
temporary effect may last for about 2 minutes. At night, with the pupil dilated for
dark adaptation, flash blindness will affect personnel at greater ranges and for
greater durations. Partial recovery can be expected in 3 to 10 minutes, though it may
require 15 to 35 minutes for full night adaptation recovery. Retinal scarring is the
permanent damage from a retinal burn. It will occur only when the fireball is
actually in the individual's field of view and should be a relatively uncommon
injury. The location of the scar will determine the degree of interference with
vision. Figure 2-2 presents the threshold distance for minimal eye injuries. 



2-5. Physiological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 
A nuclear burst results in four types of ionizing radiation: neutrons, gamma rays,
beta, and alpha radiation. The initial burst is characterized by neutrons and gamma
rays while the residual radiation is primarily alpha, beta, and gamma rays. The
effect of radiation on a living organism varies greatly by the type of radiation the
organism is exposed to. See Table 2-8 for characteristics of nuclear radiation. 



a. Alpha particles are extremely massive charged particles (four times the mass of a
neutron); they are a fallout hazard. Because of their size, alpha particles cannot
travel far and are fully stopped by the dead layers of the skin or by the uniform.
Alpha particles area negligible external hazard, but if inhaled or ingested, can
cause significant internal damage.  
b. Beta particles are very light, charged particles that are found primarily in
fallout radiation. These particles can travel a short distance in tissue; if large
quantities are involved, they can produce damage to the basal stratum of the skin.
The lesion produced is similar to a thermal burn (called a beta burn). 

c. Gamma rays, emitted during the nuclear detonation and in fallout, are uncharged
radiation similar toi X rays. They are highly energetic and pass through matter
easily. Because of its high penetrability, radiation can be distributed throughout
the body, resulting in whole body exposure.  
d. Neutrons, like gamma rays, are uncharged, are only emitted during the nuclear
detonation, and are not a fallout hazard. However, neutrons have significant mass and
interact with the nuclei of atoms, severely disrupting atomic structures. Compared to
gamma rays, they can cause 20 times more damage to tissue. 

e. When radiation interacts with atoms, energy is deposited resulting in ionization
(electron excitation). This ionization may involve certain critical molecules or
structures in a cell, producing its characteristic damage. Two modes of action in the
cell are direct and indirect action. The radiation may directly hit a particularly
sensitive atom or molecule in the cell. The damage from this is irreparable; the cell
either dies or is caused to malfunction. The radiation can also damage a cell
indirectly by interacting with water molecules in the body. The energy deposited in
the water leads to the creation of toxic molecules; the damage is transferred to and
affects sensitive molecules through this toxicity. 

f. The two most radiosensitive organ systems in the body are the hematopoietic and
the gastrointestinal systems. The relative sensitivity of an organ to direct
radiation injury depends upon its component tissue sensitivities. Cellular effects of
radiation, whether due to direct or indirect damage, are basically the same for the
different kinds and doses of radiation. The simplest effect is cell death. With this
effect, the cell is no longer present to reproduce and perform its primary function.
Changes in cellular function can occur at lower radiation doses than those which
cause cell death. Changes can include delays in phases of the mitotic cycle,
disrupted cell growth, permeability changes, and changes in motility. In general,
actively dividing cells are most sensitive to radiation. Additionally,
radiosensitivity tends to vary inversely with the degree of differentiation of the
cell. 

g. Predicting radiation effects is difficult because often it is unknown which organ
was exposed. Thus, most predictions are based on whole body irradiation. Partial body
and specific organ irradiation can also occur; particularly from fallout particles or
internal deposits. Depending upon the organ system, the irradiation can be severe.
The severe radiation sickness resulting from external, whole body irradiation and its
consequent organ effects, is a primary medical concern. The median lethal dose of
radiation which will kill 50 percent of the exposed persons within a period of 60
days, without medical intervention (designated as LD50/60), is approximately 450
centigray (cGY). 

h. Recovery of a particular cell system is possible if a sufficient fraction of a
given stem cell population remains after radiation injury. Complete recovery may
appear to occur; however, it is possible for late somatic effects to have a higher
probability of occurring because of the radiation damage. 

2-6. Effects of Biological Weapons 
Biological warfare is the intentional use, by an enemy, of live agents or toxins to
cause death and disease among personnel, animals, and plants, or to deteriorate
materiel. 

a. Live Agents. 

(1) Live agents are living organisms like viruses, bacteria, and fungi. They can be
delivered directly (artillery or aircraft spray), or through a vector such as a flea
or tick. Modern technology has eliminated some unpredictable aspects of live agent
use, making weaponization more likely.  
(2) For some agents, only a few organisms are needed to cause infection, especially
when inhaled. Live agents are small and light; they can be spread great distances by
the wind and can float into unfiltered or nonairtight places. 

(3) Live agents require time after they are ingested to multiply enough to overcome
the body's defenses. This incubation period may vary from hours to days or weeks
depending on the type of organism. Thus, to be effective, a live agent attack would
need to be launched well in advance of a tactical assault. 

(4) These agents also have life cycles in which to grow, reproduce, age, and die.
While they live, these agents usually require protection and nutrition supplied by
another living organism (the host) to survive and grow. Weathering (wind, rain, and
sunlight) rapidly reduces their numbers. Some bacterial agents produce spores that
can form protective coats and survive longer. However, the hazard from most live
agents may only last for one day.  
(5) Live agents are not detectable by any of the five physical senses; usually the
first indication of a biological attack is the ill soldier. The diseases caused by
live agents may be difficult to control because they are often easily spread from
soldier to soldier, directly or indirectly.  
(6) Because of their incubation period and life cycle, likely areas for live agent
use are in the combat service support (CSS) area. But attacks in the forward areas
cannot be ruled out. 

b. Toxins. 

(1) Toxins are by-products (poisons) produced by plants, animals, or microorganisms.
It is the poisons that harm man, not the organisms which make the toxins. In the
past, the only way to deliver toxins on a large scale was by using the organism. With
today's technology large quantities of many toxins can be produced; thus, they can be
delivered without the accompanying organism. 

(2) Toxins have several desirable traits. They are poisonous compounds that do not
grow, reproduce, or die after they have been dispersed; they are more easily
controlled than live organisms. Field monitors capable of providing prompt warning of
a toxin attack are not available; therefore, soldiers must learn to quickly recognize
signs of attack, such as observing unexplained symptoms of victims. Toxins produce
effects similar to those caused by chemical agents; however, the victims will not
respond to the first aid measures that work against chemical agents. Unlike live
agents, toxins can penetrate the unbroken skin; when mixed with a skin penetrant such
as dimethyl sulfoxide, their speed of penetration is increased. Because the effects
on the body are direct, the symptoms of an attack may appear very rapidly. The
potency of most toxins are such that very small doses will cause injuries and/or
death. Thus, their use by an enemy may be an alternative to chemical agents because
it allows the use of fewer resources to cover the same or a larger area. Slight
exposure at the edges of an attack area may produce severe symptoms or death from
exposure to toxins because of their extreme toxicity. Lethal or injury downwind
hazard zones for toxins may be far greater than those of CW agents. 

2-7. Behavior of Biological Weapons 
Biological agents can be disseminated in a spectrum of physical states. They may be
living microorganisms or spore forms of the organism. See Table 2-9 for stability of
various biological agents. They may be spread by-- 
Arthropods. 
Contact with infected animals. 
Contamination of food and water. 
Aerosol, liquid, or solid dispersion. 


The only requirement is that they must be stable enough to survive transport and
dissemination. The toxicity of biological agents is not the same for everyone; each
individual does not react exactly the same way to the same amount of an agent. Some
are more resistive than others because of race, sex, age, or other factors. The dose
is the quantity of a biological agent received by the subject. The penetration of
agents by various routes need not be accompanied by irritation or damage to the
absorbent surface, but there are often unique signs and symptoms identifiable either
with the inhalation, ingestion, or percutaneous route of entry. 

a. Spray dispersion of biological agents often enter the body through the respiratory
tract (inhalation injury). The agent may be absorbed by any part of the respiratory
tract from the mucosa of the nose and mouth to the alveoli of the lungs. 

b. Droplets of liquid and (less commonly) solids may be absorbed from the surface of
the skin, digestive tract, and mucous membranes. Agents penetrating the skin may form
temporary reservoirs under the skin.  
c. Contaminated food and water can produce casualties when ingested.  
2-8. Effects of Chemical Weapons 
a. A chemical agent is a chemical which is used to kill, seriously injure, or
incapacitate man because of its physiological effects. They can be disseminated by
artillery, aircraft, rocket, or by nonconventional means used by terrorists. When
first employed in combat during World War I, the chemical weapon (chlorine) was so
effective that the attacking Germans were not prepared to exploit the success. 

b. Chemical agents are very effective weapons against poorly trained and equipped
forces; however, they are less effective against well-trained forces. 

2-9. Behavior of Chemical Weapons 
Chemical agents can be disseminated as a gas, vapor, or aerosol under ambient
conditions. They have a range of odors varying from none to highly pungent
characteristics. Their stability is dependent upon the environmental conditions in
the area of employment. See Table 2-10 for persistency of various chemical agents. 



a. The toxicity of a chemical agent is not the same for everyone; each individual
does not react exactly the same way to the same amount of an agent. Some are more
resistive than others because of physiological factors. The dose is the quantity of a
chemical received by the individual for percutaneous or oral doses and as a time
weighted concentration, milligrams-minute/m3, for inhalation. It is usually expressed
as milligrams of agent per kilogram of subject body weight (mg/kg). The LD50 is the
dose which kills 50 percent of the exposed population. The ID50 is the incapacitation
dose for 50 percent of the exposed subjects. The penetration of agents by various
routes need not be accompanied by irritation or delayed superficial damage to the
absorbent surface, but there are often unique signs and symptoms identifiable by the
route of entry. 

(1) Gaseous, vapor, and aerosol chemical agents often enter the body through the
respiratory tract (inhalation injury). The agent may be absorbed by any part of the
respiratory tract from the mucosa of the nose and mouth to the alveoli of the lungs.
Aerosol particles larger than 5 microns (æ) tend to be retained in the upper
respiratory tract; particles in the 1 to 5 æ range are retained in the deep volume of
the lungs; while those below 1 æ tend to be breathed in and out again, although a few
are retained in the deep volume of the lungs. 

(2) Vapors and droplets of liquids can be absorbed from the surface of the skin and
mucous membranes. Toxic compounds which are harmful to the skin can produce their
effects in liquid or solid state. Agents penetrating the skin may form temporary
reservoirs under the skin; the vapors of some volatile liquids can penetrate the skin
and cause intoxication. Additionally, wounds and abrasions may present areas which
are more permeable than intact skin.  










Copyright (C) Duncan Long 1989.  All rights reserved.
PROTECTING YOURSELF FROM EMP
by DUNCAN LONG



     EMP.  The letters spell burnt out computers and other electrical systems and
perhaps even a return to the dark ages if it were to mark the beginning of a nuclear
war.  But it doesn't need to be that way.  Once you understand EMP, you can take a
few simple precautions to protect yourself and equipment from it.  In fact, you can
enjoy much of the "high tech" life style you've come accustomed to even after the use
of a nuclear device has been used by ter- rorists--or there is an all-out WWIII.    

     EMP (Electro-Magnetic Pulse), also sometimes known as "NEMP"  (Nuclear
Electromagnetic Pulse), was kept secret from the public for a long time and was first
discovered more or less by accident when US Military tests of nuclear weapons started
knocking out phone banks and other equipment miles from ground zero.

     EMP is no longer "top secret" but information about it is still a little sketchy
and hard to come by.  Adding to the problems is the fact that its effects are hard to
predict; even electronics designers have to test their equipment in powerful EMP
simulators before they can be sure it is really capable of with standing the effect.

     EMP occurs with all nuclear explosions.  With smaller explosions the effects are
less pronounced.  Nuclear bursts close to the ground are dampened by the earth so
that EMP effects are more or less confined to the region of the blast and heat wave. 
But EMP becomes more pronounced and wide spread as the size and altitude of a nuclear
blast is increased since the ground; of these two, altitude is the quickest way to
produce greater EMP effects.  As a nuclear device is exploded higher up, the earth
soaks up fewer of the free electrons produced before they can travel some distance.  

     The most "enhanced" EMP effects would occur if a nuclear weapon were exploded in
space, outside the Earth's atmosphere.  In such a case, the gamma radiation released
during the flash cycle of the weapon would react with the upper layer of the earth's
atmosphere and strip electrons free from the air molecules, producing electromagnetic
radiation similar to broad-band radio waves (10 kHz-100 MHz) in the process.  These
electrons would follow the earth's magnetic field and quickly circle toward the
ground where they would be finally dampened.  (To add to the confusion, we now have
two more EMP terms:  "Surface EMP" or "SEMP" which refers to ground bursts with
limited-range effects and "High-altitude EMP" or "HEMP" which is the term used for a
nuclear detonation creating large amounts of EMP.)

     Tactically, a space-based nuclear attack has a lot going for it; the magnetic
field of the earth tends to spread out EMP so much that just one 20-MT bomb exploded
at an altitude of 200 miles could--in theory--blanket the continental US with the
effects of EMP.  It's believed that the electrical surge of the EMP from such an
explosion would be strong enough to knock out much of the civilian electrical
equipment over the whole country.  Certainly this is a lot of "bang for the buck" and
it would be foolish to think that a nuclear attack would be launched without taking
advantage of the confusion a high-altitude explosion could create.  Ditto with its
use by terrorists should the technology to get such payloads into space become
readily available to smaller countries and groups.

     But there's no need for you to go back to the stone age if a nuclear war occurs. 
It is possible to avoid much of the EMP damage that could be done to electrical
equipment--including the computer that brought this article to you-- with just a few
simple precautions.

     First of all, it's necessary to get rid of a few erroneous facts, however. 
     One mistaken idea is that EMP is like a powerful bolt of lightning.  While the
two are alike in their end results--burning out electrical equipment with intense
electronic surges--EMP is actually more akin to a super-powerful radio wave.  Thus,
strategies based on using lightning arrestors or lightning-rod grounding techniques
are destined to failure in protecting equipment from EMP. 
     Another false concept is that EMP "out of the blue" will fry your brain and/or
body the way lightning strikes do.  In the levels created by a nuclear weapon, it
would not pose a health hazard to plants, animals, or man PROVIDED it isn't
concentrated.  

     EMP can be concentrated.  

     That could happen if it were "pulled in" by a stretch of metal.  If this
happened, EMP would be dangerous to living things.  It could become concen- trated by
metal girders, large stretches of wiring (including telephone lines), long antennas,
or similar set ups.  So--if a nuclear war were in the offing-- you'd do well to avoid
being very close to such concentrations.  (A safe distance for nuclear-generated EMP
would be at least 8 feet from such stretches of metal.)   

     This concentration of EMP by metal wiring is one reason that most e- lectrical
equipment and telephones would be destroyed by the electrical surge.  It isn't that
the equipment itself is really all that sensitive, but that the surge would be so
concentrated that nothing working on low levels of electric- ity would survive.  

     Protecting electrical equipment is simple if it can be unplugged from AC
outlets, phone systems, or long antennas.  But that assumes that you won't be using
it when the EMP strikes.  That isn't all that practical and--if a nuclear war were
drawn out or an attack occurred in waves spread over hours or days-- you'd have to
either risk damage to equipment or do without it until things had settled down for
sure.

     One simple solution is to use battery-operated equipment which has cords or
antennas of only 30 inches or less in length.  This short stretch of metal puts the
device within the troughs of the nuclear-generated EMP wave and will keep the
equipment from getting a damaging concentration of electrons.  Provided the equipment
isn't operated close to some other metal object (i.e., within 8 feet of a metal
girder, telephone line, etc.), it should survive without any other precautions being
taken with it.

     If you don't want to buy a wealth of batteries for every appliance you own or
use a radio set up with longer than 30-inch antenna, then you'll need to use
equipment that is "hardened" against EMP.

     The trick is that it must REALLY be hardened from the real thing, not just
EMP-proof on paper.  This isn't all that easy; the National Academy of Sciences
recently stated that tailored hardening is "not only deceptively difficult, but also
very poorly understood by the defense-electronics community."  Even the US Military
has equipment which might not survive a nuclear attack, even though it is designed to
do just that.

     That said, there are some methods which will help to protect circuits from EMP
and give you an edge if you must operate ham radios or the like when a nuclear attack
occurs.  Design considerations include the use of tree formation circuits (rather
than standard loop formations); the use of induction shielding around components; the
use of self-contained battery packs; the use of loop antennas; and (with solid-state
components) the use of Zener diodes.  These design elements can eliminate the chance
an EMP surge from power lines or long antennas damaging your equipment.  Another
useful strategy is to use grounding wires for each separate instrument which is
coupled into a system so that EMP has more paths to take in grounding itself.  

     A new device which may soon be on the market holds promise in allowing
electronic equipment to be EMP hardened.  Called the "Ovonic threshold device", it
has been created by Energy Conversion Devices of Troy, MI.  The Ovonic threshold
device is a solid-state switch capable of quickly opening a path to ground when a
circuit receives a massive surge of EMP.  Use of this or a similar device would
assure survival of equipment during a massive surge of electricity.

     Some electrical equipment is innately EMP-resistant.  This includes large
electric motors, vacuum tube equipment, electrical generators, trans- formers,
relays, and the like.  These might even survive a massive surge of EMP and would
likely to survive if a few of the above precautions were taking in their design and
deployment.  

     At the other end of the scale of EMP resistance are some really sensitive
electrical parts.  These include IC circuits, microwave transistors, and Field Effect
Transistors (FET's).  If you have electrical equipment with such com- ponents, it
must be very well protected if it is to survive EMP.   
     One "survival system" for such sensitive equipment is the Faraday box.  
     A Faraday box is simply a metal box designed to divert and soak up the EMP.  If
the object placed in the box is insulated from the inside surface of the box, it will
not be effected by the EMP traveling around the outside metal surface of the box. 
The Faraday box simple and cheap and often provides more protection to electrical
components than "hardening" through circuit designs which can't be (or haven't been)
adequately tested.

     Many containers are suitable for make-shift Faraday boxes:  cake boxes,
ammunition containers, metal filing cabinets, etc., etc., can all be used.  Despite
what you may have read or heard, these boxes do NOT have to be air- tight due to the
long wave length of EMP; boxes can be made of wire screen or other porous metal.  

     The only two requirements for protection with a Faraday box are:  (1) the
equipment inside the box does NOT touch the metal container (plastic, wadded paper,
or cardboard can all be used to insulate it from the metal) and (2) the metal shield
is continuous without any gaps between pieces or extra-large holes in it.  

     Grounding a Faraday box is NOT necessary and in some cases actually may be less
than ideal.  While EMP and lightning aren't the "same animal", a good example of how
lack of grounding is a plus can be seen with some types of lightning strikes.  Take,
for example, a lightning strike on a flying air- plane.  The strike doesn't fry the
plane's occupants because the metal shell of the plane is a Faraday box of sorts. 
Even though the plane, high over the earth, isn't grounded it will sustain little
damage.  

     In this case, much the same is true of small Faraday cages and EMP. 
Consequently, storage of equipment in Faraday boxes on wooden shelves or the like
does NOT require that everything be grounded.  (One note:  theoretically non-grounded
boxes might hold a slight charge of electricity; take some time and care before
handling ungrounded boxes following a nuclear attack.)   
     The thickness of the metal shield around the Faraday box isn't of much concern,
either.  This makes it possible to build protection "on the cheap" by simply using
the cardboard packing box that equipment comes in along with aluminum foil.  Just
wrap the box with the aluminum foil (other metal foil or metal screen will also
work); tape the foil in place and you're done.  Provided it is kept dry, the
cardboard will insulate the gear inside it from the foil; placing the foil-wrapped
box inside a larger cardboard box is also wise to be sure the foil isn't accidentally
ripped anywhere.  The result is an "instant" Faraday box with your equipment safely
stored inside, ready for use following a nuclear war.

     Copper or aluminum foil can help you insulate a whole room from EMP as well. 
Just paper the wall, ceiling and floor with metal foil.  Ideally the floor is then
covered with a false floor of wood or with heavy carpeting to insulate everything and
everyone inside from the shield (and EMP).  The only catch to this is that care must
be taken NOT to allow electrical wiring connections to pierce the foil shield (i.e.,
no AC powered equipment or radio antennas can come into the room from outside).  Care
must also be taken that the door is covered with foil AND electrically connected to
the shield with a wire and screws or some similar set up.

     Many government civil defense shelters are now said to have gotten the Faraday
box, "foil" treatment.  These shelters are covered inside with metal foil and have
metal screens which cover all air vents and are connected to the metal foil.  Some of
these shelters probably make use of new optical fiber systems--protected by plastic
pipe--to "connect" communications gear inside the room to the "outside world" without
creating a conduit for EMP energy to enter the shelter. 

     Another "myth" that seems to have grown up with information on EMP is that
nearly all cars and trucks would be "knocked out" by EMP.  This seems logical, but is
one of those cases where "real world" experiments contradict theoretical answers and
I'm afraid this is the case with cars and EMP.  According to sources working at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, cars have proven to be resistant to EMP in actual tests
using nuclear weapons as well as during more recent tests (with newer cars) with the
US Military's EMP simulators. 
     One reason for the ability of a car to resist EMP lies in the fact that its
metal body is "insulated" by its rubber tires from the ground.  This creates a
Faraday cage of sorts.  (Drawing on the analogy of EMP being similar to lightning, it
is interesting to note that cases of lightning striking and damaging cars is almost
non-existent; this apparently carries over to EMP effects on vehicles as well.)

     Although Faraday boxes are generally made so that what is inside doesn't touch
the box's outer metal shield (and this is especially important for the
do-it-yourselfer since it is easy to inadvertently ground the Faraday box--say by
putting the box on metal shelving sitting on a concrete floor), in the case of the
car the "grounded" wiring is grounded only to the battery.  In practice, the entire
system is not grounded in the traditional electrical wiring sense of actually making
contact to the earth at some point in its circuitry.  Rather the car is sitting on
insulators made of rubber. 
     It is important to note that cars are NOT 100 percent EMP proof; some cars will
most certainly be effected, especially those with fiberglass bodies or located near
large stretches of metal.  (I suspect, too, that recent cars with a high percentage
of IC circuitry might also be more susceptible to EMP effects.)

     The bottom line is that all vehicles probably won't be knocked out by EMP.  But
the prudent survivalist should make a few contingency plans "just in case" his car
(and other electrical equipment) does not survive the effects of EMP.  Discovering
that you have one of the few cars knocked out would not be a good way to start the
onset of terrorist attack or nuclear war.   
     Most susceptable to EMP damage would be cars with a lot of IC circuits or other
"computers" to control essential changes in the engine.  The very prudent may wish to
buy spare electronic ignition parts and keep them a car truck (perhaps inside a
Faraday box).  But it seems probable that many vehicles WILL be working following the
start of a nuclear war even if no precautions have been taken with them.

     One area of concern are explosives connected to electrical discharge wiring or
designed to be set off by other electric devices.  These might be set off by an EMP
surge.  While most citizens don't have access to such equipment, claymore mines and
other explosives would be very dangerous to be around at the start of a nuclear box
if they weren't carefully stored away in a Faraday box.  Ammunition, mines, grenades
and the like in large quantities might be prone to damage or explosion by EMP, but in
general aren't all that sensitive to EMP.

     A major area of concern when it comes to EMP is nuclear reactors located in the
US.  Unfortunately, a little-known Federal dictum prohibits the NRC from requiring
power plants to withstand the effects of a nuclear war.  This means that, in the
event of a nuclear war, many nuclear reactors' control systems might will be damaged
by an EMP surge.  In such a case, the core-cooling controls might become inoperable
and a core melt down and breaching of the containment vessel by radioactive materials
into the surrounding area might well result.  (If you were needing a reason not to
live down wind from a nuclear reactor, this is it.)

     Provided you're not next door to a nuclear power plant, most of the ill effects
of EMP can be over come.  EMP, like nuclear blasts and fallout, can be survived if
you have the know how and take a few precautions before hand.   
     And that would be worth a lot, wouldn't it?  

============================================================================ 
The author of this article, Duncan Long, is well-known as the writer of many gun,
self-sufficiency, and survival books.  His firearms books are listed (along with
other interesting books) in a free catalog available from Paladin Press, P. O. Box
1307, Boulder, CO 80306 (303) 443-7250.  Long's NUCLEAR WAR SURVIVAL is available for
$14 from Long Survival Publications, 115 Riverview Dr., Wamego, KS 66547.  Long has
also recently had a post-nuclear war sci-fi book, ANTI-GRAV UNLIMITED released from
Avon Books (available from local book stores or from Avon Books, 105 Madison Ave.,
NY, NY 10016; for autographed copy, send $4 to:  Long Survival Publications, address
above).   

http://members.cox.net/dlong41/guns/nuke.htm
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 

Surviving a Terrorist Nuke
By Duncan Long

Whether it were the result of a terrorist attack using a "brief case" nuclear device
or the first salvo of an all out nuclear war, what you did during the first few
moments following a nuclear blast would mean the difference between life and death. 

It's important to realize that such weapons will be relatively small. This reason for
this is that when a bomb increases in size by a factor of ten, its destructiveness is
only roughly doubled. Militaries employ large numbers of smaller nukes rather than
just a few large ones; smaller bombs and warheads are more easily delivered and give
more bang for the buck. 

Terrorists would use small bombs for much the same reason. Small nukes would do a lot
of damage while being easy to conceal and deliver. While the anti-nuclear activists
of the 1980s liked to describe the devastation the largest possible nuclear bomb
would cause, in reality much smaller bombs would be used in almost any attack you
might face in the future. 

You can survive quite close to "ground zero" if a small nuclear device explodes. The
population in Nagasaki was unprepared for any sort of attack; but there were
survivors who chanced to be in bomb shelters when the nuclear explosion occurred.
Some of these people were just one third of a mile from ground zero when the bomb
exploded. A good shelter can be the ticket to surviving a nuclear attack. Since the
Nagasaki bomb was not all that different from those that might be encountered in a
limited war or terrorist operation, you could survive a similar blast even if you're
just a mile from ground zero. 

Of course the farther you are from ground zero, the better off you'll be. For this
reason, one good survival strategy is to be away from areas that are apt to attract
attacks. Washington, DC, New York City, or other big cities may be glamorous, but if
the street crime isn't enough to turn you away the nuclear threat probably should be.
Ditto for those living close to large harbors, military complexes, or other possible
targets. Moving away from such areas will probably keep you safe from nuclear attack
for the rest of your life. 

Regardless of the size or source of a nuclear explosion, the energy released will be
in a several forms including visible light (at its peak, four times as bright as the
sun), thermal (heat) rays, and ionizing radiation in the form of gamma rays,
neutrons, Alpha particles, and Beta particles (with fallout arriving some time later
if it has been created by the explosion). 


The release of energy during the explosion super heats the air around it until it is
hotter than the face of the sun. This air expands violently making a blast wave that
races from ground zero (the center of the explosion) at up to 4,000 miles per hour
(fortunately this speed drops off quickly as the distance from ground zero
increases). The air ahead of the blast wave is compressed; it bends light and appears
slightly luminous and will appear as a sheet of glass moving out from the center of
the explosion. The blast sounds -as an unknown observer once said "like the gates of
Hell clanging shut." 

As the blast wave storms away from ground zero, the fireball that created it rises so
quickly that it creates a vacuum under it. The vacuum pulls air back toward ground
zero so that the blast wave is followed by a counter wave sucked back toward the area
of the explosion to fill the vacuum. Both the blast wave and the counter suction wave
are destructive. 

All in all, you won't have trouble knowing a nuclear explosion has occurred
especially since its fireball will be four times as bright as the sun. Now what steps
will be most apt to save you? 

First: Do not ever, ever look toward a nuclear flash. The intense light will burn
into your retina to create blind spots. This damage will make spots similar to those
you see when you look at a bright light; only these won't go away they'll last the
rest of your life. 

If you don't look directly at the flash, the intense light reflected from light
colored surfaces may still dazzle your eyes. If you're driving or doing anything that
absolutely requires that you see, stop immediately; this will keep you from having to
"drive by braille" when the bright light goes away and you're left in "snow
blindness" for a short time. Although such blindness will only be temporary, tooling
down the road at 55 MPH or running a buzz saw while you're "in the dark" isn't too
good of a survival strategy. 

To avoid complete "snow blindness" when it is necessary to see to find your way to a
safe place, you should close one eye. This will allow you to get off a road or into
shelter so that one eye can "see" with the eye you closed after the fireball is gone.
If at all possible, however, you should cover both eyes at the first sign of the
flash to avoid any chance of damage to them. 

There are two immediate dangers you'll have to face after the initial flash of a near
by nuclear weapon. The first is the pulse of radiation following the light and the
second is the blast wave traveling behind it. 

You won't have much time to look for safety. Only a few seconds. Fortunately, of the
whole spectrum of radiation given off by nuclear explosion, the visible light is
given off first, thereby giving you a slight lag time before the more dangerous
thermal, gamma, and neutron radiation reach peak levels and start moving out from the
blast. 

This short grace period gives you time to "duck and cover" as they called it during
the 1950's. Such quick action can be very effective in minimizing both radiation
exposure as well as keeping you from getting burns from the thermal pulse. Far from
being something ineffective (as some peace activists have suggested), the duck and
cover strategy can be a real life saver. 

What should be ducked behind? 

It should be something heavy so that a blast wave can't move it around and so that it
can shield you from flying debris. But even if almost nothing is available, just
hitting the dirt and covering your exposed skin with clothing can still help to
minimize skin burns and puncture injuries. 

How long should you stay down? 

You should not jump right back up after the flash subsides since a blast wave may be
thundering toward you. If you're dangerously close to the blast, the wave may reach
you in just 2 to 15 seconds; if the blast wave is going to be dangerous, it should
have passed through your area after two minutes. So, after your duck and cover
maneuver, you "one thousand one, one thousand two, one-thousand three..." it until
you've counted off two minutes. If there are multiple explosions, then you start
counting again with each new flash (which will be visible even with your eyes closed
unless you're in a windowless room). 

Here's the drill: Bright flash? Dive for cover. Your response needs to be automatic.
Yelling, "Hit the deck" to those around you may save them as well since we've all
seen enough war movies to know what the order means and many people react reflexively
to this command, especially if there's a bright flash. You may save several lives by
yelling this. 

Stay down for two minutes. If the blast wave is going to be dangerous, it will pass
through your area within this time. (Of course if there are multiple explosions,
you'll have to wait until two minutes after the last flash.) 

The blast wave will create several real dangers. Indoors, glass is the worst worry
even some distance from the blast. Closer to ground zero, other flying debris like
plaster or chunks of wood become equally dangerous and the blast itself can send YOU
flying if you don't have the sense to get down. Consequently, you should dive for
cover behind something that will offer protection both from the thermal radiation as
well as blast-hurled missiles. 

If you're out in the open when a flash alerts you to a nuclear attack, all isn't
lost. Diving into a ditch or other depression is the best strategy, but even if these
aren't available, covering your head and lying with your feet pointed toward the
blast can improve your chances considerably; such a position will help to keep you
from being blown about and your shoes give good protection to your feet (which can
withstand more abuse than your head to start out with). 

After the "two minute wait" for the blast wave to pass by, you should get up and head
for permanent cover. And that brings us to the most long lived effect of many nuclear
weapons: radioactive fallout. 

The "fallout" from a dirty bomb won't technically be radioactive fallout. Instead it
will be the scattered remains of the original radioactive materials used to make the
bomb. The good news is that there won't be much of it compared to a real nuclear
weapon; the bad news is that it will have a half live very much longer than that of a
conventional nuclear bomb. Instead of being dangerous for weeks, the radioactivity
from a dirty weapon will be of concern for years and most likely centuries without
proper cleanup of the area. 

A dirty bomb will be easy to spot. The blast wave, if any, will be very limited and
will extend only hundreds of yards from the explosion. There'll be very limited
damage like that produced by a car bomb--but with radioactivity in the dust and
rubble. 

You might have to do the detection of radioactive particles on your own; following
the World Trade Tower bombing, there was no sign of any officials using radiation
meters. Had a dirty bomb been used, it's likely that the contamination would have
been spread over a huge area, tracked to area hospitals, fire stations, and police
stations with the activities of rescue crews and victims before anyone detected its
presence. 

The lesson to be learned here is that if you know or suspect that a dirty bomb has
been used, there may not be any official confirmation of the fact for hours or even
days. For this reason you would ideally have some radiation detection equipment of
your own, to do the job the officials may fail to do. Lacking that, you need to be
very, very cautious if an explosion seems suspicious. 

If you suspect or learn that a dirty bomb has been employed, then leaving the area
would be the first option to consider. But remember that becoming a refugee puts you
at the mercy of strangers. Have a "bugout" bag of supplies and necessities ready to
go (a wise precaution for a lot of other catastrophes as well). 

When word gets out that there are dangerous levels of nuclear materials in an area,
there will be a panic with large numbers of frantic people clogging city streets. In
such a case, you're better off sitting tight until the congestion is cleared or goes
into gridlock. 

If a real nuclear weapon has been detonated near the ground, there will soon be
fallout raining into your area. In such a case you're probably better off hunkering
down and waiting until the levels of radiation outside have dropped to safer levels.
This is especially true if you have a large stock of supplies and perhaps even a
fallout shelter (even if it's only improvised in a corner of your basement); in such
a case you'd be better off ignoring official orders to evacuate and going it alone.
Such a tactic has the added benefit of permitting you to protect your home from
looters who may try to take advantage of the confusion. 

What is fallout? Radioactive fallout is created when the suction wave of the blast
carries matter upward with the vacuum created by the nuclear fireball as it rises. If
the explosion is close to the ground, the matter sucked from the surface of the earth
moves into the fireball and is incinerated by the intense heat. (This dust is the
"stem" that gives ground bursts their mushroom shape.) 

As the debris is pulled up into the nuclear explosion, it's exposed to the radiation
produced by the chain reaction; this exposure induces radioactivity in the debris. As
this molten, now radioactive debris continues upward, it cools off and solidifies
into small particles which gradually fall back to earth. These particles are
radioactive fallout. 

Fallout travels upward a long way; it takes quite a while for it to fall back down.
Even close to ground zero, it will take at least 15 minutes for large sand to pea
sized pieces of fallout to return to the earth. Smaller pieces, falling farther
downwind from ground zero, will take longer with the very smallest of particles
remaining airborne for days, weeks, months, or even years as they are blown farther
and farther by high altitude winds. 
This lag time that it takes for the fallout to arrive on the ground is a big plus
which many are unaware of. Because of the time needed before fallout can reach the
ground, areas down range which will eventually receive dangerous levels of fallout
will remain free of radioactive particles for up to several hours following a nuclear
blast. This gives you time to make last minute preparations or even travel to a safer
location if you're caught away from home during the attack or even pick up the
children from school if they are close by. You'll have at least 15 20 minutes and
more likely an hour or more. 

Because large particles of fallout will arrive before the smaller ones, you'll not
have trouble spotting fallout unless you're so far down wind that only small
particles will be arriving many hours or even days later. Large fallout will arrive
in a variety of forms and color (due to its make up and depending on the material
that was at ground zero). White, gray, or even black ash or popcorn like particles
could be encountered. 

Regardless of its form, it will be falling from the air and will appear unlike any
natural phenomena. You'll be able to recognize it for what it is. When the fallout
starts to arrive, you must get out of it as soon as possible (and ideally -would be
out of the open well before fallout started to arrive). 

If you are forced to be in the open, keep radioactive fallout off your skin and
clothing by brushing it off. Cover your head and use a wet handkerchief over your
face to keep from inhaling the dust if you don't have any other sort of dust mask
available. Remember: any time spent in the fallout will greatly lower your chances
for surviving. Get into a shelter of some sort as soon as you can. 

During the critical time before fallout arrives, it's important that you don't get
side tracked since you don't know how much time you really have. Do first things
first. Let tasks slide that aren't essential. Remember, too, that communications will
be disrupted, buildings may be destroyed, many people will be panicked and/or
injured. 

Be prepared to look out only for yourself and your family; trying to "save" everyone
will only result in everyone's loss. While this seems harsh, those who haven't taken
a few minutes to learn about how to survive a nuclear attack are going to be so ill
prepared that they'll soon perish in any area where lethal amounts of fallout to come
into the area they're in unless they are extraordinarily lucky. If you really care
about these people, you should try to tell them how to survive NOW, well before a
nuclear attack; last minute teaching won't take place when the bombs have exploded
and the fallout is ready to rain down. Once the attack has taken place, save yourself
and your family and let those who have gambled with their future by not preparing to
survive pay the piper. 

During such a time of panic and confusion, you'll need to be careful you don't get
sucked into unwise decisions or suggestions from others who don't have any real idea
of what is going on. This will include many "authorities" who are completely ignorant
of what a nuclear attack would be like. School officials, your boss, policemen,
national guard troops, etc., may all be giving orders and instructions which if
followed could result in your death or the death of your loved ones. Ignore the chaos
and go about your business of surviving as quickly as possible. 

If you're away from home and can't get back to your family shelter, don't seek
shelter someplace which will gradually become packed with people. This includes all
US "public fallout shelters" which, as most readers know, are currently only signs on
public buildings (the exception to this rule are shelters created for Congress which
have been and continue to be fully stocked). To put it bluntly, public shelters are
potential death traps. 

If you travel a lot, or work some distance from your home, then a bugout bag of
essentials would greatly improve your chances as well. This bag could be kept in a
closet or locker at your place of work or in the trunk of your car. It could get you
through the arrival of the fallout and then you could travel back to your home on
foot to join your family weeks later. 

If you prepare ahead of time, you can minimize potential thermal pulse and blast
damage to your home. One important point is to choose a home with a light colored
roof and exterior paint (both are especially important on wood frame houses); light
colors reflect both light and heat making your home more fire resistant to the
thermal pulse of a nuclear weapon. Avoid a weathered wood exterior on your home and
don't paint it a dark color. Brick or stone facings are first choice both for the
added shielding they give from radiation as well as their resistance to thermal
damage. 

Terracing around your home can also add a lot of shielding to a basement -- creating
a potential make-do shelter in the process. Such work can be very attractive and can
even improve the value of your home if you sell it. 

Some trees, shrubs, and grass are more fire resistant than others and should be
considered for planting around your house. Evergreens tend to be more flammable than
deciduous trees and are best avoided in areas very close to targets (where a thermal
pulse could set the trees on fire). 

Your lawn shouldn't turn brown in the fall (Bermuda grass is especially bad about
this). And be sure to keep dead bushes, piles of leaves, etc., well away from your
house so that they can't start a fire following a thermal pulse. For the same reason,
don't stack firewood next your home and keep the garage free of stacks of old
newspapers and cardboard boxes. 

Since a nuclear blast can turn windows into jagged daggers, it's wise to take some
steps to minimize this danger. One way to help keep chunks of glass in the window is
to place an "X" of tape across each pane of glass. Cloth tape is best for this, but
multiple layers of scotch tape, clear packing tape, or contact "paper" (which is
actually plastic) over glass panes will also improve things if you're worried about
how your windows look to the neighbors. Best bet is to replace glass in bedrooms or
other areas where you may not be able to react quickly to an oncoming blast with
plastic. Most hardware stores stock clear plastic that can be used in windows. 

White reflects light; that means white drapes, curtains, or shades are more ideal
than darker colored window coverings when it comes to reflecting a nuclear thermal
pulse. These light colors will reflect much of the light and thermal pulse back out
your windows and might even save you from having a fire indoors. 

After the nuclear blasts have occurred, you should take a few steps to protect you
home from further damage while you're in your shelter. If your area may have freezing
weather while you're holed up, it's a good idea to drain the water out of your home's
pipes to keep them from rupturing and damaging the inside of your house. 

Patching up any light damage done to your house by a nuclear blast is also a good
idea if it can be done quickly before fallout enters your area. Windows and doors can
be sealed with large strips of plastic or duct tape to minimize the entrance of
fallout dust. Shutters or large sheets of plywood might be used to close up windows
which might be easily used for entrance by looters who don't have the good sense to
get out of the fallout once it starts to arrive. Doors and windows can even be nailed
shut but be sure you leave several ways for you to escape from your home quickly
should there be a house fire or similar disaster. 

The aftermath of a nuclear attack would be no picnic. But, with some advanced
preparations and common sense tactics like "duck and cover", you could survive and
live to help rebuild your neighborhood and perhaps even help create a new nation.


--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Copyright   1996 Duncan Long.  

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------